Transcript COURSE-ETEROB

Energy Efficient Renovation of Old & Historic Buildings
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This project has been funded with support from the European Commission under the Lifelong Learning Programme. This
publication [communication] reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for
any use which may be made of the information contained therein.
Course description
Introduction
Designing a building restoration is a complex task
requiring close cooperation among the architect and
a group of engineers and technicians with different
expertise. The focus of the modern era engineers in
response to the world energy uncertainty,
increasing cost and adverse effects on environment
has changed toward minimizing consumption of
energy in the buildings. This has imposed a big
burden on the architects and engineers to change
the way of their thinking.
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
The overall energy consumption of a building is
determined by many factors, some of them cannot
be changed under renovation. In fact, the geometry,
the orientation, the relationship between opaque
and transparent surfaces, and the location in urban
area represent some of the constraints to the
improvement of building energy performance. In
order to reduce energy consumption in existing
buildings, the possibilities offered by synergistic
actions on elements of the building envelope and
plant components have to be assessed.
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
The course deals with efficient methodologies
aimed to reduce greenhouse gas mission in
the building sector, developed on the basis of
the different experiences regarding the
building envelope, the heating systems and
the use of renewable energy sources used for
generation of electricity and heat/cooling. After
a brief introduction to the physical
fundamentals, all materials are presented
in a practical way to support costeffective
strategies by engineers and technicians, with
the most economic advantage.
The Course provides a series of solutions
which allow a considerable reduction of
energy consumption , with particular attention
to low-cost technologies. The interventions on
the building envelope should be considered in
connection to the heating system improving
efficiency, if possible, by means of the use of
renewable energy technologies. Also, the
Course provides useful basis of knowledge to
support the technical and procedural choices
for the energy performance renovation of old
and historical buildings.
Cost control
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Course description
The entire Course material is divided into 6 main Modules and each module is further divided into
Learning Units
Introduction
Module
Building
refurbishment
Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit
LU1: Fundamentals & market
overview
Improving energy efficiency in
residential buildings – the European
perspectives
Weatherization & energy efficiency
improvement
Benefits of refurbishment of existing
buildings
LU2: Standards of passive buildings.
An overiew
Chosen standards for passive
buildings
Fundamentals of LEED standard
PHC – Passive House Certificate
LU3: Conservation of historic
buildings
Introduction to architectural
conservation
Rehabilitation of historic buildings
Upgrading building elements
Energy efficiency and historic
buildings
Understanding the building before
starting upgrading works
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Main Topics
Renewable
energy
Cost control
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Course description
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Module
Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
Assessment
& evaluation
Learning Unit
LU1: Comparison of standard
assessment methods
European standard ISO 13790 – an
overview
Thermal bridges – simplified
calculations
Refurbishment action
LU2: Life-cycle energy performance
evaluation
Principles of life-cycle assessment
in the construction sector
Simplified methodology for
refurbishment project
Annual energy savings
Calculation of life-cycle energy
performance
Life-cycle energy optimization
LU3: Energy audit in buildings
From energy audit to green audit
Principles of energy audit
Planning energy audit in buildings
Practical advices
Material
science
Modern
technology
Main Topics
Renewable
energy
Cost control
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Course description
Introduction
Module
Module 3: Material science
Learning Unit
LU1: Basics of building physics
Heat & mass transport
Hygrothermal behavior
in buildings
Ventilation & air quality
Heat energy storage & cooling
Thermal comfort
Environmental profiling
of building materials
LU2: Materials for improving
energy efficiency
High performance insulation
materials
Phase change materials
Materials for energy efficiency in
buildings
Materials skills for building
refurbishment
LU3: Systems & devices
Opaque building envelope
Transparent building envelope
Shading devices
Windows: nanogel & energy
efficient
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Main Topics
Renewable
energy
Cost control
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Course description
Introduction
Module
Learning Unit
Module 4: Modern technology
LU: Modern technology systems
& devices
Thermal energy storage
technologies
Low energy cooling systems
HVAC systems in energy efficient
buildings
Energy efficient lighting
Comparative analysis of heating
& cooling systems
Module 5: Renewable energy
systems
LU: Application of RES in building
retrofitting
Renewable energy options
Solar photovoltaic devices &
systems
Solar thermal devices & systems
Wind energy for homes
Heating pumps
Micro CHP power generation
Design principles for RES
installations
Module 6: Cost control
LU: Uncertainties in investment,
costs of green building, costs
optimization
Uncertainties & risk management
Costs of green buildings
Costs optimization
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Main Topics
Cost control
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Introduction
Introduction
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Building
refurbishment
History
In the Roman period, temples of classical Greece
could often be renovated in a manner to respect
eventual new functions, as well as the fashion of
time. The role of the conservator as distinct from
those of the restorer and the scientist had been
emerging during the 1930s with a focal point in the
Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, which
published the Technical Studies in the Field
of the Fine Arts (1932–42). The conservation of
artefacts and buildings has a long history, but the
conservation as a real profession is came out from
the time of foundation of the International
Institute for the Conservation of Museum
Objects (IIC) in 1950 and the appearance soon
after in 1952 of its journal Studies in
Conservation
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Centre for the Study of the Preservation and the
Restoration of Cultural Property (ICCROM), in
Rome, was a further advance. The Centre was
established in 1959 with the aims of advising
internationally on conservation problems, coordinating conservation activators and establishing
standards of training courses. Following the
Second International Congress of Architects in
Venice in 1964 when the Venice Charter was
promulgated, the International Council of
Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) was set up in
1965 to deal with archaeological, architectural and
town planning questions, to schedule monuments
and sites and to monitor relevant legislation .
Source: Jokilehto J. A history of architectural conservation.
Oxford UK: Butterworth-Heinemann; 2009
Cost control
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Introduction
i
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Low-energy buildings in European climates should have
the following features:
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Excellent thermal
separation and low
transmission losses
between the inside and
outside through a
highly insulated
building skin
High-quality glazing
with U-values below at
least 1.5Wm−2 K−1 and
a reasonably high total
energy transmittance
with a g-value above
60%
Heat recovery of
ventilation air in winter for
very high energy
efficiency standards
(passive building)
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3
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Eicker U. Low energy cooling for sustainable buildings. Chichester UK: John Wiley & Sons; 2009
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Introduction
Core definitions
Introduction
The process of applying measures
necessary to sustain the all historic
fabrics: existing form, integrity, and
materials of an historic property.
Preservation deals directly with
cultural property. Its object is to keep
it in its existing state. Repairs must be
carried out when necessary to
prevent further decay. Damage and
destruction caused by water in all its
forms, by chemical agents and by all
types of pests and micro-organisms
must be stopped in order to preserve
the structure. It reflects a building’s
continuum over time, through
successive occupancies, and the
respectful changes and alterations
that are made.
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
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2
Rehabilitation
Preservation
Building
refurbishment
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The process of making possible a
compatible use for a property through
repair, alterations, and additions, while
preserving those portions or features
that convey its historical, cultural, or
architectural values. The best way of
preserving buildings as opposed to
objects is to keep them in or
modernization with or without adaptive
alteration. The original use is generally
the best for conservation of the fabric,
as it means fewer changes.
emphasizes the retention and repair of
historic materials but provides more
latitude than preservation because it is
assumed that the property is more
deteriorated prior to work.
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Introduction
Core definitions – cont.
Introduction
Restoration
Building
refurbishment
The process focuses on the retention
of materials, features and character
of building while permitting the
removal of some materials that have
no impact on historic value and
reconstruction of missing features
from the restoration period.
Restoration and re-integration of
details and features occurs frequently
and is based upon respect for
original material, archaeological
evidence, original design and
authentic documents. Replacement
of missing or decayed parts must
integrate with the whole building
structure.
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Reconstruction
The process of depicting, by
means of new construction, the
form, features, and detailing of a
nonsurviving building structure or
object for the purpose of
replicating its historic appearance.
Reconstruction must be based
upon accurate documentation and
evidence.
Cost control
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Introduction
Buildings ranked in terms of energy efficiency
Introduction
Level
Description
1
Insulated building
Building
refurbishment
Well insulated envelope with good average thermal transmittance
and maximum thermal transmittances of its parts
2
Energy efficient buildings
Assessment
& evaluation
Good thermal insulation, correct ventilation and an optimal use of
solar and internal gains. Requirements: maximum net energy
demand for heating per unit floor area, unit protected volume or unit
envelope area
3
Low energy buildings
Normalised energy consumption for heating, cooling, air
conditioning, hot water and lighting. Calculations are based
on EPDB legislation. Buildings consume less than 60 MJ/(m3 x a)
primary energy for heating
4
Passive buildings
Net energy demand for heating below 18 MJ/(m3 x a), good indoor
climate without mechanical cooling in summer. Overall primary
energy consumption does not exceed 144 MJ/(m3 x a)
5
Zero energy buildings
Buildings which produce as much primary energy as is used for
heating, hot water, etc. The objective is lowering primary energy
consumption and producing the equivalent amount of energy from
renewable sources (PV, geothermal, wind, etc)
6
Energy plus buildings
Buildings produce more energy than used for various purposes
7
Energy autarkic buildings
Buildings no longer depend on energy fossil fuels. Produce their
own energy from renewable energy sources
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Hens H. Applied building physics.Berlin GE: Wilhelm Ernst & Sohn; 2011
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Introduction
Ethics of conservation
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Standards of ethics for conservation work
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
1.
The condition of the building must be recorded before any intervention
2.
Historic elements must not be destroyed, falsified or removed
3.
Any intervention must be the minimum necessary
4.
Any intervention must be governed by unswerving respect for the
aesthetic, historical and physical integrity of cultural property
5.
All methods and materials used during treatment must be fully
documented
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Applied from: Feilden BM. Conservation of historic buildings. Oxford UK: Architectural Press, Elsevier; 2003
Cost control
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Introduction
Ethics of conservation
Introduction
Recommendations for conservation team
Building
refurbishment
1.
Assessment
& evaluation
The condition of the building must be fully recorded before
any intervention is begun
2.
The materials and methods used during treatment must be
documented
Material
science
3.
Historic elements must not be destroyed, falsified or
removed
Modern
technology
4.
Any intervention must be the minimum necessary. It should
be reversible - or at least repeatable, and not prejudice
possible future interventions
5.
Any intervention must be governed by unswerving respect
for the aesthetic, historical and physical integrity of cultural
property
Renewable
energy
Cost control
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Applied from: Feilden BM. Conservation of historic buildings. Oxford UK: Architectural Press, Elsevier; 2003
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Learning objectives. To give:
1. overall critical look at energy efficiency in buildings;
2. knowledge on current standards used in energy-efficient
buildings;
3. basic knowledge on important aspects of conservation of
historic buildings and preservation of facades and other
historic elements.
Cost control
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Fundamentals & market overview
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Priorities
Total energy used through the
lifetime
Energy used in construction work
(embodied energy)
Assessment
& evaluation
Energy used to refurbish and
maintain a building
Material
science
Energy used to run and live in the
building
Energy used to dispose of the
building at the end of useful time
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Draughtproof, remove leaks
Insulate to high standards
LU2
LU3
Buildings are
responsible for 60 per
cent of EU energy use,
about 40–60 per cent of
which is heating energy.
Of the homes we will
inhabit in 2050, around
four out of five will be
ones we inhabit now.
Double or triple glaze
Eliminate thermal bridges
Make as airthight as possible
Install passive stack ventilation
with night cooling or mechanical
ventilation with heat recovery
Supply the reamining energy
renewably where appropriate
For example, Germany,
Ireland, Italy, Spain and
the UK together hold
100 million dwellings of
which about 50 million
are uninsulated.
Retrofitting insulation
and glazing can easily
reduce heating/cooling
energy use by 30–40
per cent in many
buildings. With more
effort, savings as high
as 80 per cent can be
achieved
Improving energy efficiency in residential buildings – the European perspectives
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 1: Fundamentals & market overview
Introduction
Historic and also most of
the buildings erected
after World War II
present poor energy
performance.
Building
refurbishment
The age of a building
often has direct
consequences on its
conditions, not only
because of the lack of
services and facilities
and the overall
obsolescence, but also
for the technological
choices of the period in
which it was constructed.
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
The improvement of the
energy performance of
existing buildings is one
of the primary goals of
the most recent
European Directives,
starting from 2002/91/EC
Renewable
energy
Cost control
The refurbishment of building
opaque envelope represents
an important approach for the
reduction in global European
energy consumption as
prescribed by the Directive
2010/31/EU.
In the non-domestic sector in
Europe, building refurbishments
offer far more opportunities for
reducing emissions than new
building; the latter represents
annually less than 1.5 per cent
of the building stock.
The usual motivation for
refurbishment includes:
• replacement of degraded
finishes and components;
• tailoring space organization
to new uses;
• improving environmental
quality
LU1
LU2
LU3
Barriers to improve energy
efficiency
Lack of information about available
energy efficiency options..
Financial Disincentives: The need for
large up-front capital investment. Many
property owners may know that they
can realize substantial savings over the
long run, the initial investment may be
so high that they have difficulty
financing it
Knowledge, skill and awareness
gaps: there are still quite significant
knowledge and skill gaps amongst
valuers when it comes to
understanding the possible value
impact of existing and emerging
sustainability technologies
Improving energy efficiency in residential buildings – the European perspectives
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 1: Fundamentals & market overview
LU1
LU2
LU3
Weatherization: series of energy efficiency measures that are based on sophisticated analyses
Introduction
of individual homes. These analyses take the whole-house approach, which maximizes energy savings.
Weatherization has become a leader in advancing home energy science and in helping spawn a new
industry providing home energy efficiency services to the wider public
Building
refurbishment
Insulation: reduces conductive heat flow
Weatherization procedures include:
Assessment
& evaluation
• Sealing bypasses – cracks, gaps, holes –
around doors, windows, pipes, wirings;
• Sealing air ducts using fiber reinforced mastic;
• Replacing/installing dampers in exhaust ducts;
• Protecting pipes from corrosion and freezing;
• Installing footing drains, foundation
waterproofing membrans, interior drains, etc;
• Providing proper ventilation to unconditioned
spaces to protect from condensation;
• Installing building wrap, siding, flahing, solar
tubes, skylights;
• Installing insulation in walls, floors and cellings,
around ducts and pipes, water heaters;
• Retrofitting older windows with low-energy
windows (double glazed, for instance).
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Weatherization: reduces connective heat flow
Common problems include:
• Poor description of building energy systems
(thermal performance of the shell, electrical
systems, heating and cooling systems);
• Poor analysis of utility data (level of energy
inefficiency);
• Inadequate economic analysis (estimates
of the costs of energy efficiency and renovation
strategies, cost effectiveness);
• Limited energy efficiency measures (often
omitted data on HVAC and lighting systems);
• Inadequate energy saving estimation (cost
effectiveness of energy efficiency measures
depends on their potential in reducing energy
use.
Weatherization & energy efficiency improvement
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Fundamentals & market overview
The benefits:
Introduction
The financial benefits of
green buildings include lower
energy, waste disposal, and
water costs, lower
environmental and emissions
costs, lower operations and
maintenance costs, and
savings from increased
productivity and health
benefits.
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
High initial costs of nearly
zero-energy refurbishments
(NZER) and uncertainties
about the expected benefits
characterize this type of
investment. Other
conditions of uncertainties
are related to the increase
in value of the building,
fluctuation costs of energy,
the perceived savings in the
building operation and
maintenance costs.
Due to the seasonal variation of various climate conditions wall
insulation will always bring positive benefits but in some situations
may be small in comparison with the cost, or present technical
difficulties or unacceptable visual impact. This is sometimes the case
in historic buildings
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU2
LU3
“Nearly any
way the
effects are
measured, be
they direct or
indirect,
historic
preservation
tends to yield
significant
benefits to the
economy.”
Randall
Mason
Source: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Benefits of refurbishment of existing buildings
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 2: Standards of passive buildings. An overiew
LU1
LU2
LU3
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment‘s Environmental Assessment Method) is the world‘s
leading and most widely used environmental assessment method for buildings, with over 115,000
buildings certified and nearly 700,000 registered. It is an integrated assessment system for construction
and real estate. BREEAM is the UK Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment
Method, created in 1990. Buildings outside the United Kingdom can be assessed using BREEAM
International, which is tailored to suit local circumstances
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Major refurbishments and renovation project
Minor refurbishments
Assessment
& evaluation
is a project that results in the provision, extension or alteration
of thermal elements and/or building services and fittings.
These types of projects include:
- Thermal elements include walls, roofs and floors;
- Fittings include windows (incl. rooflights), entrance doors;
- Building services include lighting, heating and mechanical
ventilation/cooling and manage- ment systems.
Material
science
Modern
technology
Source: Hardy R, Tiltnes S. Technical Manual BREEAM NOR. Norwegian Green Building Council;
2012
Renewable
energy
This BREEAM scheme is not
designed to assess a cosmetic
and minor refurbishment of an
existing building, i.e. works
that do not result in the
provision, extension or
alteration of thermal elements
and/or building services and
fittings; or a change of use .
Similar to the credit rating system in LEED, BREEAM Offices 2008 defines categories of credits
according to the building impact on the environment including management, health & wellbeing,
energy, transport, water, materials, waste, land use & ecology and pollution. There are up to 102
credits available. The total score percentage of an assessed building is calculated based on the
credits available, number of credits achieved for each category and a weighting factor.
Cost control
Chosen standards - Fundamentals of BREEAM standard
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Standards of passive buildings. An overiew
Introduction
LU2
LU3
The overall performance of the building is categorised as:
Building
refurbishment
Category
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
%
Unclassified
< 30%
Pass
≥ 30%
Good
≥ 45%
Very good
≥ 55%
Excellent
≥ 70%
Outstanding
≥ 85%
For each category, there are a minimum number of credits
that must be achieved
Cost control
Chosen standards - Fundamentals of BREEAM standard
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 2: Standards of passive buildings. An overiew
LU1
LU2
LU3
The Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Green Building Rating
System has been developed by the United States Green Building Council (USGBC) to
rate new and existing commercial, institutional, and high-rise residential buildings
according to their environmental attributes and sustainable features.
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Unlike BREEAM,
LEED is a points
rather than
percentage system.
There are 100 base
points, 6 possible
Innovation in Design
and 4 Regional
Priority points
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Categories of LEED criteria:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Sustainable sites;
Water efficiency;
Energy & atmosphere;
Materials & resources;
Indoor environmental quality;
Innovation & design process.
LEED allows the
project team to
choose the most
effective and
appropriate
sustainable building
measures for a given
location and/or
project. These
“points” are then
tallied to determine
the appropriate level
of LEED certification.
Source: Feilden BM. Conservation of historic buildings. Oxford UK: Architectural Press, Elsevier; 2003
Chosen standard - Fundamentals of LEED standard
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Standards of passive buildings. An overiew
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
LEED rating Points
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Certified
40 – 49
Silver
50 – 59
Gold
60 – 79
Platinum
≥ 80
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Chosen standard - Fundamentals of LEED standard
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Standards of passive buildings. An overiew
LU2
Passive House Standard has been shown to work for renovations by using
substantial modelling to weigh up the pros and cons of different strategies.
The standards allow for a great deal of flexibility.
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
LU3
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Certification criteria for non-residential buildings
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Specific space heating demand
Specific space heating load
≤ 15 kWh/m2a
≤ 10 W/m2
Specific useful cooling demand
≤ 15 kWh/m2a
Total specific primary energy demand
≤ 120 kWh/m2a
Airtightness: pressure test result, n50
≤ 0,6 h-1
A common definition of ‘passive house renovation’ has emerged as one that improves
the specific demand for heating, and cooling to a maximum of 30kWh/m2 a because it is
prohibitively expensive to reach 15kWh/m2 a. Depending on the building type, energy
savings vary between 80 to 95%. The specific heating demand is typically reduced from
between 150 and 280kWh/m2 a to less than 30kWh/m2 a. There are many older
buildings, particularly with solid walls, for which Passivhaus is not necessarily the best
approach, or which will never reach anything like 80 %reduction
Renewable
energy
Cost control
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Applied from: Feist W. Certified passive house. Criteria for non-residential passive houe buildings. Darmstadt GE: Passive House Institute; 2013
Chosen standard - Fundamentals of PHC – Passive House Certificate
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 2: Standards of passive buildings. An overiew
LU1
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Other standards
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Ska Rating
Ska Rating is an environmental assessment tool that assesses the
sustainability of the fit-outs of office premises. The scheme is operated by
the UK’s Royal Institute of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) and is thus
relevant to some refurbishment projects. On completion of the
assessment, a rating of Bronze, Silver or Gold may be achieved
HQE
HQE for ‘High Environmental Quality’ developed and mostly used in France
DGNB
DGNB for ‘German Sustainable Building Council’ which originated in Germany
and is also used in Central and Eastern Europe
Valideo
Valideo a Belgian ‘sustainable construction certification system’ also used in
Luxembourg
Minergie
Minergie, the Swiss scheme, which focuses on occupants’ comfort and energy
consumption
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Other standards
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
What is historic building
Building
refurbishment
Briefly, an historic building is one that
gives us a sense of wonder and makes
us want to know more about the people
and culture that produced it. It has
architectural, aesthetic, historic,
documentary, archaeological, economic,
social and even political and spiritual or
symbolic values; but the first impact is
always emotional, for it is a symbol of
our cultural identity and continuity—a
part of our heritage. If it has survived the
hazards of 100 years of usefulness, it
has a good claim to being called historic
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
The first step is to define the
objective of a conservation project.
The next is to identify the ‘values’ in
the object, monument or site that is
the cultural property in question, and
to place these values in order of
priority. In this way, the essential
messages of the object will be
respected and preserved. The
values can be classified under three
main headings: ‘emotional’, ‘cultural’
and ‘use’ values.
Source: Feilden BM. Conservation of historic buildings.
Oxford UK: Architectural Press, Elsevier; 2003
Cost control
Introduction to architectural conservation
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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LU3
Values of historic buildings
Introduction
Emotional values
Building
refurbishment
Wonder
Identity
Continuity
Respect & veneration
Symbolic & spiritual
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cultural values
Documentary
Historic
Archeological
Aesthetic
Architectural
Townscape
Ecological
Technological
Scientific
Use values
Functional
Economic
Social
Educational
Political
Cost control
Introduction to architectural conservation
1
2
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU1
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Direct conservation (Consolidation)
Building
refurbishment
Consolidation is the application of adhesive or
supportive materials into the actual fabric of cultural
property, in order to ensure its continued durability or
structural integrity. In the case of immovable cultural
property, consolidation may entail the injection of
adhesives to secure a detached mural painting to
the wall and likewise grouting of the structure
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Consolidation should be considered before
application of any thermal insulations and could
be used for elimination of thermal bridges by
using appropriate materials (insulators)
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Introduction to architectural conservation
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU1
LU2
LU3
Preparatory procedures
Introduction
Initial inspection
Building
refurbishment
A preliminary visual inspection is necessary in order to define and know present condition
of the building that is documented in details
Documentation
Assessment
& evaluation
Recording is essential before, during and after any intervention. In all works of preservation repair or
excavation of cultural property there must always be precise documentation in the form of analytical
and critical reports, illustrated with photographs and drawings
Material
science
Degrees of intervention
The minimum degree of intervention necessary and the techniques used depend upon the conditions of
climate to which cultural properly is likely to be subjected. Conservation involves making interventions at
various scales and levels of intensity which are determined by the physical condition and causes of
deterioration. Each case must be considered as a whole, and individually, taking all factors into account
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Treatment plan
The goal of a treatment plan covers a lot of issues, from the very beginning of the project to completion,
and beyond into operations and maintenance
Cost control
Applied from: Feilden BM. Conservation of historic buildings. Oxford UK: Architectural Press, Elsevier; 2003.
Introduction to architectural conservation
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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LU3
Treatment plan checklist
Introduction
Items
No
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
1
Site survey—property boundaries, legal description, and so on
2
Documentation of the property
3
Program of the planned building use
4
List of and copies of applicable building codes
5
Survey of any hazardous materials
6
Identification of current and available utilities
7
List and copies of any restrictions on the treatment
8
List and copies of design standards that would apply, such as LEED or BREEAM rating
criteria
9
List of chosen high performance insulation materials
10
List of chosen renewable energy systems
11
Characteristics of HVAC system
12
Preliminary budget
13
Preliminary schedule
Applied from: Feilden BM. Conservation of historic buildings. Oxford UK: Architectural Press, Elsevier; 2003.
Introduction to architectural conservation
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU1
LU2
LU3
Building a team
Introduction
Professionals
No
Building
refurbishment
1
Administrator
2
Architect
3
Builder or contractor
4
Conservator
5
Civil or structural engineer
6
Energy preservation and efficiency
engineer
7
Renewable energy systems expert
8
Environmental engineer
9
Materials scientist
10
Master craft worker
11
Buildings economist
12
Surveyor
13
Project manager
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
The conservation architect is the
generalist in the whole building
conservation process. He must
have a good knowledge of all
periods of architecture,
combined with a thorough
understanding of modern
building practice; he must be
able to preserve the artistic and
historical value of the old
structure, yet prepare schemes
which are satisfactory in respect
to modern requirements
Applied from: Feilden BM. Conservation of historic buildings. Oxford UK: Architectural Press, Elsevier; 2003.
Introduction to architectural conservation
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Building rehabilitation has the following social,
cultural and economic advantages:
Assessment
& evaluation
- Social, in that people and towns keep their
identity;
- Cultural, in that artistic, architectural,
archaeological and documentary values
can be preserved for their intrinsic value;
- Economic, in that existing capital is used
and energy is saved
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Rehabilitation of historic buildings
1
2
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
Introduction
LU1
LU2
LU3
Flexible planning
Building
refurbishment
Measured drawings and full
investigation of the building are
necessary before starting a
rehabilitation
project.
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Structural analysis of the moisture
content of walls and relative
humidity will possibly be
necessary. Using drawings to 1/50
scale, in order to show all the
existing detail, alternative schemes
can be prepared
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Feilden BM. Conservation of historic buildings. Oxford UK: Architectural Press, Elsevier; 2003.
Rehabilitation of historic buildings
1
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Heating system
Introduction
Improved space heating is one of the most difficult aspects of
rehabilitation
Building
refurbishment
Heating plant factors
Points that must be considered:
Assessment
& evaluation
Building factors
1.
2.
Material
science
3.
Modern
technology
4.
5.
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Exposure, wind tightness;
Heat loss – can insulation
reduce this effectively?
Dampness, humidity,
danger to structure;
Thermal mass, internal
volumes, window/wall ratio;
Space available for plant
and fittings.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Cost of fuel and labour;
Size of boiler and
expected life of plant and
distribution system;
Type of fuel and economic
amount to be stored;
Possible use of renewable
energy.
Applied from: Feilden BM. Conservation of historic buildings. Oxford UK: Architectural Press, Elsevier; 2003.
Rehabilitation of historic buildings
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU1
LU2
LU3
Air conditioning
Introduction
The problem of large ducts and remote plant rooms required for air
conditioning is difficult in existing historic buildings
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
In order to avoid the expense of long duct runs,
local plant rooms can be planned and they may
have an advantage. There are many ways
of manipulating heating by spraying and cooling
and recirculating air in what is called air
conditioning. This means that air conditioning
design should be flexible, but its design depends
a great deal on experience and judgement
and correct briefing of the specialist engineer
by the architect who knows what is needed
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Feilden BM. Conservation of historic buildings. Oxford UK: Architectural Press, Elsevier; 2003.
Rehabilitation of historic buildings
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Facade retention offers the following advantages:
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Heritage buildings often establish a
specific and positive brand
Retaining facades preserves often
prominent buildings with public value to
society and conserves craftsmanship
which simply cannot be recreated today
Providing the scope of refurbishment is
wide, there is opportunity to improve
carbon performance by replacing
windows and adding insulation
Preserving a historic facade and
satisfying planning and conservation
concerns may gain planning
which can be used to allow a more
expansive approach to the remainder of
the building
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Upgrading building elements – RETENTION FACADES
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
Window openings and frames establish the character of a building’s
elevation
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Windows should not be altered in their
proportions or details. Their frames are
recessed within a wall is of historical
significance and greatly affects the
character of a building
Replacing traditional single glazed sash
windows with double glazed PVCu
windows can be highly damaging to the
special character and appearance of the
building
Where possible windows should be
repaired and continue to be used
Air infiltration through old windows is
often excessive, so draught-proofing and
weather stripping can be very effective in
reducing not only heating bills but also
reducing levels of noise and dust too
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Upgrading building elements - WINDOWS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
Introduction
LU1
LU2
LU3
Improving window insulation. The aim should be to improve thermal performance
whilst retaining the existing windows by investigating the following options
Building
refurbishment
Draught-proofing is the most
cost-effective and least intrusive
method
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Shutters are important features and often
Modern
technology
contribute to the design of an elevation.
Repairing and using external and internal
shutters can minimise heat loss at night and
reducing unwanted solar gain. Internal shutters
can also be draught-proofed to improve thermal
performance
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Secondary glazing improves
insulation, draught-proofing and noise
control. If carefully designed, it can be
relatively unobtrusive (with divisions in
the glazed panels hidden behind meeting
rails or glazing bars). However, not all
windows are suitable for secondary
glazing, owing to the narrowness of the
internal sill or reveals; the difficulty of
accommodating the new panes within an
oddly-shaped or unduly protruding
architrave; or clashes with internal
shutters
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Upgrading building elements - WINDOWS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU1
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Introduction
Doors which are original or of historical interest should be retained wherever
possible, and repaired as necessary
Building
refurbishment
Most external doors on historic
buildings have a hardwood frames made
of timber. Depending on their age and
design they were usually morticed and
tenoned together, either in a flat plane, or
with panels fitted between stiles, and
muntins and rails
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Existing glazed doors should be
retained, and all original or historically
important glass kept. Often the easiest
option to improve thermal performance
will be with draught-proofing, thick
insulated curtains or a draught lobby
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Thermal properties: Solid doors
often have reasonable insulating
properties. Most of the heat loss
usually occurs by infiltration around
the perimeter of the door or where
gaps have developed around
panels, at the junction with the door
closer and through locks. Repairs
and draught-proofing may be
helpful
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Upgrading building elements - DOORS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Upgrading building elements
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Historic buildings display a wide range of materials and forms of
construction, ranging from thick stone or earth walls, to timberframed buildings with comparatively thin and lightweight wattle-anddaub infill panels. The appearance of the external walls is usually
one of the most important aspects of a historic building, while the
materials give the building its unique and often local character.
Other than repairs or re-pointing, they are unlikely to tolerate much
change without exacerbating decay problems and detrimentally
affecting their special interest and appearance
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Important considerations for historic buildings
Introduction
The construction of many older buildings is
not conducive to the retention of heat within
their interior spaces. In buildings with thick
masonry external walls, heat is quickly
absorbed into the walls. Because of the
dense masonry construction, which absorbs
the heat, brick or stone buildings can take
more energy to heat the internal environment
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
In buildings with thinner, solid masonry
or brick walls, heat loss through the
structure can be considerable, and
some form of thermal upgrading will be
necessary if heating costs are to be
kept within reasonable limits
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
With heavy brick and stone buildings,
satisfactory heating can be difficult to
achieve. The heavy internal walls within the
structure do have advantages: they can act
as a heat store, taking in heat energy
during the warm day and giving it out during
the cold night. In case of heavy masonry
construction, attention still needs to be
given to the external envelope so that heat
cannot flow straight through the building
Applied from: Gorse Ch, Highfield D. Refurbishment and upgrading of buildings. New York NY: Spon Press; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Where walls need to transpire moisture and
vapour effectively, new materials intended to
form barriers to unwanted moisture or water
vapour can impede the very processes which
help a historic wall to survive in good
condition
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Many insulation products lose their insulating
qualities when wet, so moisture from damp
walls or interstitial condensation can make
them almost useless. Others, including some
natural materials, are less affected. However,
care must be taken in selecting appropriate
materials that do not result in new problems
such as insect infestation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Many historic buildings have
solid walls constructed in
porous materials, with
internal finishes such as lime
plaster. This porosity has
helped to keep many
buildings in good condition
Porous materials in walls
Renewable
energy
Importance of permeability
Cost control
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
Wall insulation is important for:
Building
refurbishment
heat retention in cool conditions
Assessment
& evaluation
heat exclusion in warm conditions
Material
science
preventing the ingress of solar
gains made by the absorption of
radiation on the outside of the
opaque wall
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU3
External insulation
Internal insulation
Technical matters to consider
Technical
matters
to consider
External
insulation
Rain screening: Most insulation materials
Detailing: Insulation will need to be carefully
need to be screened from rainfall effectively
detailed around the edges of window and door
openings
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
LU2
Vapour build-up: If the external insulation
forms a barrier to vapour, there will be a
possibility of condensation build-up from internal
moisture vapour within the permeable wall
behind
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Detailing: External insulation will increase the
wall thickness. This will require the design of
effective details for all window and door
surrounds, for roof overhangs and for the wall
foot, and for junctions with adjoining construction
Modern
technology
Warming of original fabrics: The external
Renewable
energy
insulation will, however, offer the advantage of
warming the internal fabric. This will often
improve both its durability and the internal
environment of the building to a useful degree
Cost control
Cold bridging: Breaks in all insulation layers
are potential cold bridges which can lead to
condensation and rot
Loss of thermal mass: If a solid wall is
insulated internally its thermal mass will no
longer be available to moderate the internal
temperature of the rooms inside
Resistance to condensation: If insulation
is installed internally there will be a reduction in
temperature towards the outside, reaching a dew
point at which internal moisture vapour will
condense
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
The relative metrics and disadvantages of externally and internally applied insulation
Introduction
Externally applied insulation
Building
refurbishment
Internally applied insulation
Building can be almost totally wrapped in insulation,
areas of cold bridging are significantly reduced
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Cold bridging is eliminated where internal walls
and floors abut the facade, further reducing heat loss
and surface condensation
Walls are kept warm and dry, thus increasing its
insulation value and heat storage capacity
Cheaper than externally applied insulation
Need external scaffolding system
Does not eliminate structural cold bridging
In some cases it can be used to improve aesthetics
Eliminates surface condensation
The risk of interstitial condensation within the thickness
of the wall, is reduced
Can be applied selectively to various part of the
buildings
Walls are protected from the external environment
Can produce interstitial condensation risk
Can correct adverse dew point situation
Reduces heat protection of outside walls
Avoids disruption to or masking of existing interior wall
finishes, which may have to be preserved
Interstitial condensation risk with some insulants,
vapour barriers must be used to prevent condensation
No loss of floor space
Fire risk with some insulants
More expensive than internally applied insulations
Practical limitations on thickness
Produces similar savings in heat loss and energy
consumption (up to 50%) to internally applied
insulation
Produces similar savings in heat loss and energy
consumption (up to 50%) to externally applied
insulation
Applied from: Gorse Ch, Highfield D. Refurbishment and upgrading of buildings. New York NY: Spon Press; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid walls
Introduction
Solid walls constructed of bricks,
stone, concrete block or in situ
concrete. Other materials in
historic buildings could include
materials such as rammed earth
(cob or adobe), and timber framed
walls with solid infill of mud, clay,
soil composites, often reinforced
with light timber sections. These
kinds of constructions often
present problems for
refurbishment due to damp
ingress and decay
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Solutions are highly specific to the
technical details of the
construction, and are not dealt
with here. The U-value of the noninsulated wall is of course
dependent on the material and
thickness of construction. Typical
values range from 1.0 to
3.0,which fall a long way short of
current newbuild values
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Solid walls – external insulation
Introduction
Option 1
Rigid insulation material fixed to wall and render applied
OUTSIDE
Building
refurbishment
INSIDE
Implications for external
insulation
solid wall
Assessment
& evaluation
rigid insulation
Material
science
render
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
fastening
OUTSIDE
Cost control
All forms of external insulation
can be applied without
changing the thermal
response of the interior.
This is because the thermal
mass of the structure remains
coupled to the interior, which
is where the gains are made
(solar gains through windows
or gains from internal
equipment and occupants)
INSIDE
1
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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LU3
Solid walls – external insulation
Introduction
Option 2
Framing fixed to wall to create voids for non-structural insulation, render applied on support
OUTSIDE
Building
refurbishment
INSIDE
Implications for external
insulation
solid wall
Assessment
& evaluation
External insulation also
protects the structure from
solar gains made on the
external surface of the
building. These are important
considerations as both can reduce
the need for air-conditioning.
Finally, external insulation may be
part of a treatment to provide
new weatherproofing to a
degraded wall.
metal lath
Material
science
render
semi-grid
insulation or quilt
Modern
technology
framing
Renewable
energy
OUTSIDE
Cost control
INSIDE
2
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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LU3
Solid walls – external insulation
Introduction
Option 3
As in option 2 but with rigid cladding applied (e.g. timber, metal panel)
OUTSIDE
Building
refurbishment
INSIDE
Implications for external
insulation
solid wall
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
In most cases, externally
applied insulation
eliminates cold bridges and
(unlike internal insulation)
does not create new cold
bridges. The exception to
this is where a balcony or
other structure will protrude
through the insulating layer.
breather membrane
insulation
Modern
technology
framing
Renewable
energy
OUTSIDE
Cost control
INSIDE
3
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid walls – external insulation
Introduction
Option 4
Composite engineered cladding panel providing weathering and insulation
OUTSIDE
Building
refurbishment
INSIDE
Implications for external
insulation
fastening
Assessment
& evaluation
solid wall
Material
science
engineered panel
including insulation
Modern
technology
This may not be easy to solve
without reconstructing the
attachment with a high
strength, low cross section
element. Non-thermal
advantages include the benefit
of work being able to be
carried out without disturbing
the interior, and possibly
allowing occupation to
continue.
structural
framing
Renewable
energy
OUTSIDE
Cost control
INSIDE
4
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid walls – external insulation
Introduction
i
Building
refurbishment
External cladding may cause a major visual impact.
For some historic buildings this will be unacceptable.
In cases where buildings are already of rendered
finish, using options 1 or 2 could leave the building
with no significant change of appearance. However,
applying external insulation to facades that are
articulated and have openings for windows etc., will
be technically challenging. In other cases, change of
appearance may be welcome, and options 3 and 4
are often used to give visual as well as thermal
improvement
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid walls – internal insulation
Introduction
Option 1
Rigid insulation material fixed to wall
OUTSIDE
Building
refurbishment
INSIDE
rigid closed cell
insulation
The constructional options
for internal insulation are
similar in principle to
external insulation
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Rigid insulation material
fixed to wall and render or
plasterboard applied.
Plasterboard with integral
insulation is available
special
fastening or
adhesive
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
OUTSIDE
Cost control
INSIDE
1
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid walls – internal insulation
Introduction
Option 2
Framing fixed to wall
OUTSIDE
Building
refurbishment
INSIDE
framing
Assessment
& evaluation
insulation
Framing fixed to wall to
create voids for nonstructural insulation,
plasterboard or other
cladding panel
vapour check
Material
science
plasterboard or
other cladding
panel
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
OUTSIDE
Cost control
INSIDE
2
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid walls – internal insulation
Introduction
Interstitial condensation
Building
refurbishment
Internally applied insulation has the potential
for creating interstitial condensation – that
is, condensation occurring inside the
structure what can have a very damaging
effect on the structure, causing corrosion
and decay, and in some cases reducing the
effectiveness of the insulation
Assessment
& evaluation
The cause of interstitial condensation is that
the diffusion of water vapour through the
structure to a part which is at a temperature
below the dewpoint of the air.The solution is
prevent the vapour from diffusing through
the material by applying a vapour check
barrier to the warm side of the insulation
Material
science
In practice it is difficult to ensure
that the vapour check is
unperforated and sealed to such
as door linings and the pressure
differences
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
12
13
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16
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20
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid walls – Cold bridges
Introduction
Cold bridges will be created where
internal partitions and floors meet the
external wall
Building
refurbishment
OUTSIDE
The solution is bringing the insulation back
for a distance from the external wall or floor
INSIDE
INSIDE
Assessment
& evaluation
heat loss through gap
in insulation
low surface
temperature
Material
science
paritition or
floor
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
cantilevered
balcony
Cost control
solved by insulation
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Cavity walls - construction
Introduction
TYPICAL CAVITY WALL CONSTRUCTION
OUTSIDE
INSIDE
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
masonry cavity
Material
science
OUTSIDE
INSIDE
Modern
technology
EXAMPLE
225mm solid wall has a U-value of
2.3W/m2°K, whilst a cavity wall with two
leaves of 112mm has a U-value of
1.7W/m2°K. This is still at least five times
higher than typical newbuild values
Renewable
energy
in situ concrete external cladding
Cost control
Walls built from about 1950 onwards
usually included a cavity. In walls of double
leaf masonry (brick, concrete, stone, etc.)
the main purpose of the cavity was to
prevent the transmission of moisture from
the outer leaf to the inner leaf. The cavity
also increased the thermal resistance
compared with the same amount of solid
material, but not sufficiently to meet
modern standards. Composite walls may
have cavities inherent in their construction
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Cavity walls - construction
Introduction
TYPICAL CAVITY WALL CONSTRUCTION
OUTSIDE
INSIDE
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
in situ concrete internal cladding
Material
science
OUTSIDE
INSIDE
Modern
technology
If there is a cavity in the wall of the
building, there is a debate about
whether this should be filled or
whether external or internal insulation
should be applied instead. Holes in
the building fabric. The external wall
can have cracks or tiny holes,
particularly where extensions have
been bolted on to the original
dwelling. Inspect and repair mortar
joints and fill any holes
Renewable
energy
framed
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
12
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20
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Cavity walls - insulation options
Introduction
The insulation value of the cavity is dependent
on the ventilation and air movement
Building
refurbishment
The more restricted the ventilation, the greater the
insulation value, as the temperature in the cavity
Assessment
& evaluation
The insulation value is limited by the transfer by
convection and radiation of heat from one leaf
to the other
Material
science
Modern
technology
1
Reducing the radiative transfer by including
low-emissive surfaces
2
Reducing or eliminating convective transfer
by filling the cavity with insulating material
Two ways for
improvement in
insulation value
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Cavity walls - insulation options /practical considerations/
Introduction
Masonry walls
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
In the case of double masonry
walls, it is usually impractical to
remove one leaf in order to place
rigid insulation in the cavity. Thus
the cavity can only be considered
as a location for insulation if
material can be injected or blown
into the cavity via small openings
using materials such as rockwool,
glass fibre and expanded
polystyrene beads, recycled
cellulose fibre and vermiculite
Cost control
Injection of walls with loose
fill is less common practice.
The refurbishment of this wall
type may involve the stripping
of either the inner or outer
leaf. Provided the cavity is
large enough this will give the
opportunity to fix semi-rigid
insulation, still maintaining a
cavity
Composite & lightweight walls
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Walls - retrofit inner or outer leaf
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
During refurbishment of ancient or historic
buildings there may be the need to build an
inner leaf, on its own foundations, in order
to provide structural support to upper floors,
or to the existing external wall. If a cavity
is to be included, then this could be insulated.
However, it is possible that the requirements
for bonding the new leaf to the existing wall
may require the cavity to be too small for
significant insulation to be included. In these
cases, other insulation options for solid walls
will have to be adopted
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - WALLS
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13
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16
17
18
19
20
21
22
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Upgrading building elements
1
2
3
4
5
6
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8
9
10
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Floors and historic buildings
Introduction
The appearance of a floor can be
a highly distinctive feature of a
historic building. Generally floors
should not be lifted. If floors have
to be lifted or replaced, there are
opportunities to improve
insulation
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Solid floors, such as those laid with
stone, brick, early concrete, plaster
or lime ash, cannot be insulated
without first excavating them.
Generally this should be avoided,
unless it is the only way to remedy
some destructive defect
Damp-proof membranes will
usually be incorporated.
Membranes can cause more
problems by driving moisture up
walls and columns and are
sometimes unnecessary with
permeable materials
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Upgrading building elements
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2
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Floors and historic buildings
Introduction
Floorboards can often be lifted and insulation installed with
comparative ease. Care should be taken if:
Building
refurbishment
1
Assessment
& evaluation
2
The floorboards have a structural
function-acting as a plate
membrane in early 18th-century
construction: houses have been
known to collapse when all the
floorboards on one level were
removed at once
Material
science
Modern
technology
Early wide hardwood boards
(usually oak or elm) are used
and cannot be lifted without
causing damage to the
boards or joists
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Gorse Ch, Highfield D. Refurbishment and upgrading of buildings. New York NY: Spon Press; 2009
Upgrading building elements
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid ground floors
Introduction
Most solid ground floors being considered for
refurbishment will be non-insulated
Building
refurbishment
There is some uncertainty about the actual insulation
value of non-insulated ground floors. It is very dependent
upon the properties of the subsoil. The literature provides
values ranging from 0.3 for large buildings to 1.0 for small
shallow-plan buildings.The dependence on size is due
to the three-dimensional nature of the heat flow.
The outcome is that large buildings may have relatively
low floor U-values already, and the cost benefit of floor
insulation may be poorer than for other parts of the
envelope
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid ground floors – insulation options
Introduction
Option 0
Original floor construction
Building
refurbishment
screed
Assessment
& evaluation
Floor insulation reduces heat losses in
the heating season and may also
improve comfort by reducing
temperature stratification where cool
air collects close to floor level. The
impact of floor insulation on heat loss
may be less than expected when
applied to deep floor plans, due to the
relatively low effective U-value of the
noninsulated floor away from the
perimeter
Material
science
Modern
technology
slab
Renewable
energy
soil
0
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid ground floors – insulation options
Introduction
Option 1
Building
refurbishment
Load-bearing insulation above slab
reinforced screed (5075 mm)
rigid insulation
(50-100mm)
Load-bearing insulation above
slab with reinforced screed above.
This provides some insulated
thermal mass, which offer some of
the beneficial functions of thermal
storage associated with
heavyweight construction. The
beneficial effects of thermal mass
is realized if dense conductive
materials (e.g. ceramic tiles) are
used as a floor finish. For screed
thickness of up to 75mm, this
amount of thermal storage would
be significant for 24-hour cycles
only, due to its isolation from the
thicker ground slab.
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
slab
soil
1
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid ground floors – insulation options
Introduction
Option 2
Building
refurbishment
Load-bearing insulation above slab with lightweight decking above
timber or timber
product deck
rigid insulation
(50-100mm)
Assessment
& evaluation
Load-bearing insulation
above slab with lightweight
decking above. This
behaves as a lightweight
construction since the mass
is isolated by the
insulation.The floor finish
will have little effect on
thermal response
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
slab
soil
2
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
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9
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid ground floors – insulation options
Introduction
Option 3
Raised floor with rigid or non-rigid insulation
Building
refurbishment
raised floor
Raised floor with rigid or
non-rigid insulation (quilt)
on original floor. Raised
floors are used where
access to communications
wiring and services are
required across the whole
floor.They may also be of
value where underfloor
voids are to be used as part
of a natural ventilation
system
insulating quilt
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
slab
soil
3
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid ground floors – insulation options
Introduction
Option 4
Replaced slab with rigid insulation beneath
Building
refurbishment
slab
rigid insulation
Replaced slab with rigid
insulation beneath. This
would only take place in
major refurbishment, or
in new parts of a
building. It offers both
high insulation and large
thermal mass
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
blinding
soil
4
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Solid ground floors – underfloor heating or cooling
Introduction
Underfloor heating (or cooling)
pipes can be incorporated in
floor options 1, 2 and 4. The
thermal mass of the screed in
option 1 will result in a slow
response emitter which could
lead to control problems where
rapid changes in heat loads and
gains are expected. Option 4
will have a very slow response
(days rather than hours), and
would give control problems in
all but continuously occupied
buildings with very constant
gains profiles
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
For option 2, the heating pipes
are located just beneath the
decking in the surface of the
rigid insulation.This results in a
rapid response emitter with a
large surface area, which with
suitable controls can be very
efficient. Underfloor heating with
option 3 could be achieved with
a warm-air supply. Underfloor
heating should never be
installed without insulation from
the ground
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Suspended ground floors
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
The insulation value of the non-insulated suspended floor
is dependent on the degree of ventilation of the underfloor
void. For traditional timber floors, this is often quite high
and results in the U-value being significantly higher –
typically around 1.5 – than for a solid floor. Reducing the
ventilation rate would reduce this but would lead to high
humidity and subsequent decay of the timber. For nontimber floors the void is also normally ventilated, to avoid
condensation
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
1
2
3
4
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Suspended ground floors – insulation options
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Option 1
Insulation placed underside of the floor
pre-cast concrete
or steel joists
insulation option 1,2 or
3 of solid ground floors
Assessment
& evaluation
screed
If access to crawl space
permits, it may be
possible to apply
insulation to the
underside of the floor,
or lay it onto the ground
or oversite concrete
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
insulating quilt
concrete or
ceramic blocks
Cost control
soil or
oversite
concrete
1
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
12
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Suspended ground floors – insulation options
Introduction
Option 2
Remove deck and apply rigid or semi-rigid insulation
insulation option 2 of
solid ground floors
Building
refurbishment
timber or timber
product deck
timber joists
Assessment
& evaluation
Remove deck and apply
rigid or semi-rigid
insulation between
joists. Cold bridging is
tolerable due to relatively
high thermal resistance
of timber. Thermal
behaviour as lightweight
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
insulation
soil
Cost control
soil or
oversite
concrete
2
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
12
13
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Gaps between floorboards
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Draughts from gaps between floorboards are
ideally plugged where the air first gets into the
building. But this is often hard without a more
complete refurbishment, especially in old
buildings or those with cavity walls. Beam-andblock floors may be riddled with cracks,
particularly if the screed is poor
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
MATERIALS:
Large area boards with tongue-and-groove
edges fixed on to floorboards can reduce air
leakage, but you must plug all the gaps in the
floorboards before laying them. If a cavity wall
is filled and the problem persists, take the
floorboards up, insulate between the joists
and lay an airtight permeable layer above the
joists before relaying the boards, taking care
not to puncture the membrane except where
the screws are.
papier maché or sawdust mixed with
dye that matches the colour of the
boards, and PVA or resin;
thin slices of cork from a cork board;
oakum – loose hemp or jute fibre
obtained by unravelling old ropes;
rolls usually made from plastic
Cost control
Applied from: Thorpe D. Sustainable home refurbishment. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
Upgrading building elements - FLOORS
12
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Upgrading building elements
1
2
3
4
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Roof insulation is important for two main reasons:
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
A poorly insulated roof can be a source of large
heat losses due to its exposure to wind, the large
convective transfer from a warm surface upwards,
and high radiant losses to the night sky
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
The roof surface receives the greatest insolation
during the summer period – solar gains
conducted through the roof can be a major cause
of overheating and possibly expensive mitigation
by air-conditioning
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - ROOFS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Roof types in relation to opportunities for insulation
Introduction
A
roofs with accessible attic spaces (double pitched, mono-pitched or flat)
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Attic
space
Modern
technology
Traditional pitched
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - ROOFS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Roof types in relation to opportunities for insulation
Introduction
B
roofs with voids
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Void
Timber deck
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - ROOFS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Roof types in relation to opportunities for insulation
Introduction
C
solid roofs
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Solid roof
Material
science
Modern
technology
Waffle slab
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - ROOFS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Insulating roofs with attic spaces
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Access to the upper surface of the
ceiling element allowing the
placement of non-rigid insulation
material. Usually there is no space
limitation, large thicknesses of
insulation can be accommodated
and high standards of insulation
achieved at low cost
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Care should be taken to
ensure that the insulation
material does not obstruct
air flow at the eaves,
particularly when there are
no other ventilation
openings
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Migration of water vapour through celling and
insulation requires ventilation of attic space
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - ROOFS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Insulating roofs with voids
Introduction
Condensation creates rot
Building
refurbishment
Access to the upper surface of the
ceiling element allowing the
placement of non-rigid insulation
material. Usually there is no space
limitation, large thicknesses of
insulation can be accommodated
and high standards of insulation
achieved at low cost
Condensation zone
Timber
deck
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Care should be taken to
ensure that the insulation
material does not obstruct
air flow at the eaves,
particularly when there are
no other ventilation
openings
Modern
technology
Temperature
Renewable
energy
Dewpoint
Dewpoint profiles in insulated flat roof without vapour
check and roof ventilator
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Upgrading building elements - ROOFS
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Insulating roofs with voids
Introduction
Ventilator
Building
refurbishment
Filling of a roof void with particulate
insulation (e.g.mineral fibre,
polystyrene beads) by injection
through small openings, since it
would be impossible to insert an
internal vapour check between the
ceiling and insulation
Assessment
& evaluation
The recommendation is to gain
complete access to the void by the
removal of either the inner or outer
elements, and install a vapour
check membrane on the warm side
of the insulation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Temperature
Renewable
energy
Vapour
check
Dewpoint
Dewpoint profiles in insulated flat roof with vapour
check and roof ventilator
Cost control
It is strongly recommended that the
void is not filled, leaving a space
above the insulation that can be
ventilated
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Insulating solid roofs (or with inaccessible voids)
Introduction
For flat roofs three options are available
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
A
Insulation above the waterproof membrane
Material
science
B
Insulation between waterproof membrane and
structural deck
Modern
technology
C
Insulation below the structural deck
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Insulating solid roofs (or with inaccessible voids)
Introduction
A
Building
refurbishment
Gravel or concrete tiles
The so-called ‘upside-down’ roof
relies on the inherent waterproof
properties of closed-cell plastic or
glass foam insulation
Assessment
& evaluation
Slabs of rigid insulation are cut to
fit and simply laid on the existing
waterproof membrane
Material
science
Modern
technology
Waterproof
membrane
Structure
The great advantage of this method
is that the waterproof membrane is
protected from thermal stress and
other damage, and kept at a very
stable temperature. Most cold
bridges will be avoided
Rigid
insulation
Renewable
energy
Insulation above the waterproof membrane
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Insulating solid roofs (or with inaccessible voids)
Introduction
B
Building
refurbishment
This might be carried out on a roof
that had to be stripped due to the
poor condition of the waterproof
membrane
Assessment
& evaluation
High surface temperature
The disadvantage of the method is
that the waterproof membrane
remains exposed to the weather
Material
science
Modern
technology
Waterproof
membrane
(unstable
temperature)
Renewable
energy
Vapour
check
The only exception to this might be
where on a historic building part of
a flat or low-pitched roof is covered
with lead or copper, and a change
of appearance is unacceptable
Insulation
Insulation between deck and waterproof membrane
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Insulating solid roofs (or with inaccessible voids)
Introduction
C
Temperature moderately stable
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
The main concern is the
avoidance of interstitial
condensation by
preventing moist air from
the interior getting to the
cold underside of the
structural deck
Material
science
Modern
technology
Vapour
check
Ventilation
space
Ceiling
Insulation
Renewable
energy
Internally insulated solid roof
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Surface reflectance
Transmission of solar gain through non-insulated horizontal roof void (A) and effect of low
emissivity surface - aluminium foil (B,C)
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Transmitted solar gain
A
Assessment
& evaluation
Aluminium foil
on upper
surface
Material
science
B
Reduces emitted radiation
Modern
technology
C
Renewable
energy
In warm climates where solar gains
through the opaque fabric of the
roof are a problem, the thermal
performance of a roof can be
greatly influenced by increasing the
reflectance of the roof surface
Reflects back radiation
Polished metallic surfaces also
have low IR absorption. However,
they have poor emissivity in the
long-wave IR, thus reducing the
loss of heat at night. Conventional
non-metallic paints have good longwave emissivity
Aluminium foil on lower surface
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Thermal upgrading of flat roofs
Introduction
The method used to upgrade an
existing flat roof will depend to some
extent on its construction. Concrete
flat roofs can be upgraded only by
adding the new insulation either
beneath the slab at ceiling level or
on top of the slab
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
With timber flat roofs, a third option
is available, this being to insert the
insulation within the void between
the ceiling and the roof covering. It
should noted that, where possible,
upgrading methods that produce a
‘cold roof’ should be avoided
The simplest and most costeffective means of upgrading
a flat roof is to provide thermal
boards at ceiling level
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applie from: Gorse Ch, Highfield D. Refurbishment and upgrading of buildings. New York NY: Spon Press; 2009
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU1
LU2
LU3
Thermal upgrading of pitched roofs
Introduction
Pitched roofs may be
upgraded by inserting an
additional insulating layer,
either at ceiling level, or at
rafter level, immediately below
the roof covering
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
The new insulation may be inserted at
rafter level in buildings where no ceiling
exists and where the accommodation
extends into the roof space. Typical
examples of this include redundant
churches and agricultural barns, where
the existing open roof space is retained to
preserve the original character
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Insulation added at the ceiling level
creates cold surfaces in the roof space.
Ventilation should be used to carry
condensation and water vapour outside
the building. When adding insulation to
create warm or cold roofs, ensure that
ventilation requirements are met
Applied from: Gorse Ch, Highfield D. Refurbishment and upgrading of buildings. New York NY: Spon Press; 2009
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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LU3
Recommended insulation standards
Introduction
Existing
construction
element
Building
refurbishment
Typical
U-value
Improvement measure
Target
U-value
Cavity walls
1,50
Fill cavity with insulation; adding additional
external or internal insulation
Solid walls
2,10
Insulate internally using insulation backed drylining, insulation with studwork or insulate
externally with wet render, dry cladding or bespoke systems. 80-140 mm of insulation is
required in all cases
0,30
Floor
0,70
Insulate above and below concrete slab or
between joists of timber ground floor with 100200 mm of insulation
0,2-0,25
Modern
technology
Pitched roof
(uninsulated)
1,90
O,16
Renewable
energy
Install 250-300 mm mineral wool quilt (1st
layer between joists, 2nd layer across joists).
Insulate between rafters with insulation in
addition to 40-100 mm of insulation above or
below the rafters
Flat roof
Add 100-160 mm of insulation above
structural deck.
0,25
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Cost control
1,50
0,50-0,60
0,20
Source: Energy Saving Trust CE83
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU1
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Introduction
Preservation
is a better
choice for
long-term
energy
conservation
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Generally, old buildings
are not insulated, they
have leaky doors and
windows, inefficient
mechanical systems, and
they don’t contain any of
the new energysaving
systems or equipment
Cost control
Energy efficiency and historic buildings
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
Opportunities to conserve energy and materials
Building
refurbishment
employ recycled, renewable, and reused building
materials
Assessment
& evaluation
minimize waste, spillage, and misuse of building
materials
Material
science
minimize energy and water usage
Modern
technology
provide consumer operating and maintenance
information
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Cullinane JJ. Maintaining and reparing old and historic buildings. Hoboken NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 2013
Energy efficiency and historic buildings
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
Introduction
LU1
LU2
LU3
Specific goals to maximize operating efficiency
Building
refurbishment
thermal envelope and air leakage should be monitored
and improved
Assessment
& evaluation
mechanical systems should be controllable
ducts and pipes should be of minimal length
and well sealed
Material
science
use high-efficiency heating and air conditioning
equipment
Modern
technology
use energy-efficient lighting systems and maximize daylight
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Cullinane JJ. Maintaining and reparing old and historic buildings. Hoboken NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 2013
Energy efficiency and historic buildings
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
Introduction
i
LU2
LU3
Before any modification in structure of old building you should
understood it (its construction, condition and the way it performs)
Building
refurbishment
Any alterations for energy conservation require:
Assessment
& evaluation
Ensuring that the building is well understood, to avoid
damage
A
Material
science
Modern
technology
B
Minimising disturbance to existing fabric
C
Reversing the changes easily without damaging the
existing fabric
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from:Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
Introduction
LU2
LU3
Assessment of significance
i
Should be done before considering any alteration
Building
refurbishment
The actual
assessment of
significance is a key
task in the process of
upgrading historic
buildings for thermal
efficiency and should
be carried out and
documented prior to
the design or
preparation of any
upgrading proposals
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
The following elements should be
assessed
Identifying
the
special
elements
External features (decorative façade,
windows and doors)
The spaces and internal layout ( the
plan of a building is most important
characteristics)
Internal features (decorated plaster
surfaces, panelling, floors, window
shutters, doors and door-cases)
Details (mouldings, stucco-work, wall
and ceiling decorations)
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
Introduction
i
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
LU3
Principles of alteration
A
Building
refurbishment
LU2
B
Minimum intervention
Compatibility
the minimum absolutely
necessary alteration, the
maximum historic fabric will be
preserved, and thus the
significance which it embodies
all changes should be made
using materials and techniques
which are compatible with the
historic fabric
C
Modern
technology
Reversibility
all unavoidable changes should be
made to be fully reversible ( the
valuable historic fabric can be
returned to its original state
without damage
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
Understanding the building before starting upgrading works
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
LU2
LU3
Building as an environmental system
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
i
Assessment
& evaluation
It is recommended that originally-intended
environmental performance of building should be
researched and understood as a vital part of both its
potential performance. Upgrading proposals will be
naturally compatible with the existing fabric.
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
LU2
LU3
Building as an environmental system - cont.
Building
refurbishment
the following issues need to be taken into consideration:
Large scale
Assessment
& evaluation
the performance of the
whole building must
be assessed in a
holistic approach to
heating, ventilation,
insulation and energy
efficiency
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Medium scale
Smaller scale
how the conditions
vary from place to
place around the
building
to make satisfactory
junctions between
various elements
and construction
details with different
types and levels of
insulation
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
i
Introduction
LU2
LU3
‘Breathability’ of buildings
Building
refurbishment
i
Assessment
& evaluation
Whilst ‘breathability’ may seem to be a simple
matter, the actual behaviour of liquid water and
water vapour, and their effects on other aspects of
the performance of both the building envelope and
the internal environment, can be very complex
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
Understanding the building before starting upgrading works
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
LU2
LU3
‘Breathability’ of buildings – cont.
physical effects that should be taken into account:
Building
refurbishment
Sources of moisture
Rain, rising damp ( the capillary water ingress from ground), internal
moisture vapour (condensation on cold surfaces from internal air), damaged water pipes
Assessment
& evaluation
Hygro-thermal behaviour
Expressed as relative humidity (RH), which is the amount of water vapour
in air quantified as a percentage value of the total amount which air at that particular temperature
could carry. It shows the potential for evaporation to take place
Material
science
Pores & capillarity
Moisture is taken up into, and evaporated from the pores in permeable materials.
Water in the smallest pores is difficult to remove requiring a considerable amount of energy
Modern
technology
Dynamic behaviour
The liquid water within permeable building materials moves around in response
to changing conditions (daily and seasonal cycles). The pores within the wall need not be completely filled.
The moisture flows will maintain a balance between evaporation and condensation which keeps the level of
moisture in the material within tolerable limits
Renewable
energy
Permeability within
the construction
Permeability within the construction is important to the overall health of
traditional buildings. The use of highly permeable materials allows moisture
to disperse through a mixed construction
Cost control
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
LU2
LU3
‘Breathability’ of buildings – cont.
physical effects that should be taken into account:
Building
refurbishment
Latent heat
Evaporation and condensation of water has effects on material temperature
through the effects of latent heat
Assessment
& evaluation
Understanding permeability
The permeability of the external surfaces of traditional building
materials is the most important aspect of permeability
Material
science
NOTE: The permeability of the external surfaces of traditional building materials is the most important aspect of
permeability
Modern
technology
Internal permeability
The permeability of the internal surfaces in traditional buildings has less effect
on the physical health of traditional buildings
Renewable
energy
NOTE: Permeable fabric internally has the ability to absorb quite large quantities of moisture
from the internal environment, and to store it for release later
NOTE: If internal humidity is adequately buffered, an interior can be comfortable for the occupants at a cooler
temperature
Cost control
Applied from: Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
LU2
LU3
‘Breathability’ of buildings – cont.
Moisture barriers
Building
refurbishment
CAUTION: any intervention in the movement and evaporation of moisture
can have significantly detrimental effects on the building fabric. The great
care must be taken when considering adding modern, impermeable
materials to traditional construction
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
External moisture barriers
Modern
technology
Rainwater can be partially absorbed and then evaporate
harmlessly away but in some cases can also be trapped
in large quantities over time
Renewable
energy
NOTE: External moisture barriers effectively trap condensation
from the internal environment within the building envelope
Cost control
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
LU2
LU3
‘Breathability’ of buildings – cont.
Moisture barriers
Building
refurbishment
Internal moisture barriers
Assessment
& evaluation
Internal moisture barriers are commonly used to prevent moisture vapour from the
internal environment condensing within the building fabric, particularly when
insulation is being added to the internal face of solid walls
Material
science
NOTE: Termed vapour
barriers, vapour checks or
vapour control layers under
the right circumstances can
be very effective
Modern
technology
NOTE: Retrofitting vapour barriers into
existing buildings is particularly difficult
because of the existing structural
connections (where floor joists are
supported off internal walls)
NOTE: The gaps in the
vapour barriers will be at the
most vulnerable point in the
construction
NOTE: The installation of vapour barriers into existing buildings of
Renewable
energy
traditional construction is rarely effective, and can actually cause
increased damage by concentrating the moisture rather than
dispersing it
Cost control
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
Understanding the building before starting upgrading works
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
LU2
LU3
‘Breathability’ of buildings – cont.
Moisture barriers
Building
refurbishment
Moisture barriers within the fabric
Assessment
& evaluation
Moisture barriers within the construction, such as damp proof membranes (DPMs),
damp proof courses (DPCs) and localised separating membranes are
commonplace in converted traditional buildings
Material
science
Traditional breathable solid ground floors have often been replaced with modern
concrete constructions including a damp proof membrane. Rising damp up walls
can be prevented by installing a damp proof course within them
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
NOTE: Physical most durable DPCs are difficult to insert. Injected
chemical DPCs tend to have relatively short service lives
Cost control
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
Understanding the building before starting upgrading works
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
LU1
LU2
‘Breathability’ of buildings – cont.
Building
refurbishment
Ventilation requirements
Assessment
& evaluation
Historic buildings usually need more ventilation than modern onest, they
were often more ventilated than strictly necessary because of loose-fitting
doors, windows and other openings
Material
science
LU3
If ventilation of a historic building is reduced too much, condensation, mould
and fungal growth occur, leading to deterioration of the fabric
Modern
technology
CAUTION: Great care is required in selecting an
appropriate ventilation rate for a historic building
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
Understanding the building before starting upgrading works
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
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Introduction
LU1
LU2
LU3
Thermal bridging
Building
refurbishment
If the thermal performance of one element is
improved by adding insulation while an adjacent
area is not insulated, a local cold spot – known as
a thermal or cold bridge – is created
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
NOTE: Adding more and more insulation can increase the risk of localised
damp and construction failures in less-insulated components which bridge
this layer. The same effect applies in case that the insulation thickness
is reduced, such as at window and door reveals, and comparable
construction details
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
Understanding the building before starting upgrading works
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
i
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
LU2
LU3
Material compatibility
All interventions to upgrade the energy efficiency of historic
buildings must be technically compatible with the existing
structure. It is important that technical risks are not introduced
Assessment
& evaluation
NOTE: It is best practice to use materials which match the original fabric as
Material
science
closely as possible
NOTE: It is important to ensure that new materials have permeability which is
Modern
technology
appropriate to the existing breathable construction to which they are being added
CAUTION: To use of modern substitutes and to introduce impermeable
materials or membranes into permeable traditional construction
is not good practice and can lead to trouble
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
Understanding the building before starting upgrading works
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
i
Introduction
LU1
LU2
LU3
Material compatibility
Building
refurbishment
Natural insulation materials
Assessment
& evaluation
In case of historic buildings, the use of
insulation materials based on natural fibres
can be very beneficial. (wool, hemp, flax,
recycled newspaper). Fibres are able to
absorb and then release moisture by
evaporation. Synthetic insulation materials
often do not have these attribute (glass fibre,
rock wool)
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
Understanding the building before starting upgrading works
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
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Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
i
Introduction
Material
science
Modern
technology
LU3
Establishing existing performance
Before carrying out any upgrading works it is necessary to establish how well the building is
performing so improvements can be targeted to those areas where the biggest return
can be made with the minimum risk. The following non-destructive tests give useful information
to help guide proposals for upgrading the energy efficiency of traditional buildings:
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
LU2
Air pressurisation testing
Infra-red thermography
Dampness measurement
This process uses a fan set
temporarily into a doorway
of the building to measure
how much air is escaping. It
gives a very useful
information about the overall
degree of air infiltration that
a building suffers from
Survey of the external
envelope of a building using
an infra-red camera, and
gives a visual indication of
where heat may be
escaping from
Dampness can be
measured in a range of
ways by specialists, the
removal of small samples
will be required for accuracy
Renewable
energy
Cost control
In-Situ U-Value measurement
Borescope/CCTV
Valuable technique for assessing the actual
thermal performance of building elements.It
should be carried out in the winter. The Uvalues resulting are not necessarily comparable
with those obtained by conventional calculation
methods, but is more accurate in many cases
Visual techniques for examining small
voids within structures, flues and drains.
Very useful and cost-effective ways of
assessing whether damage has
occurred in hidden areas of a
construction, and whether upgrading is
likely to be possible
NOTE: Electrical
dampness meters
should not be used
on masonry or
plasterwork,
because of
extremely
misleading
readings
Applied from: Westergaard M. Energy efficiency and historic buildings. London UK: English Heritage; 2010
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Module 1: Building refurbishment
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Conservation of historic buildings
i
Introduction
LU2
LU3
Establishing existing performance
Obtaining energy performance data
Building
refurbishment
The parameters to be monitored include:
Assessment
& evaluation
external air temperature,
Detailed performance data can be
obtained from instrumental
monitoring of the building, in
which key parameters are
measured in regular time intervals
(between five and fifteen minutes)
Material
science
Modern
technology
solar radiation,
internal air temperatures,
sub-metered energy for heating, cooling,
ventilation, lighting, plug loads,etc.
relative humidity of the outside and inside
air (if the building uses comfort cooling)
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Understanding the building before starting upgrading works
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Learning objectives. To give:
1. basic knowledge and understanding of assessment methods
commonly used in Europe (European Standard ISO 13790, an
overview, thermal bridges-simplified calculations, refurbishment
action);
2. basic knowledge on evaluation of energy performance in time
and its importance for refurbishment processes (principles of
life
cycle assessment, simplified methodology for refurbishment
project, annual energy savings-calculation, life cycle energy
optimization);
3. basic knowledge on energy audit in buildings (principles of
energy audit, basic calculations of energy loses, planning energy
audit in buildings, practical advices).
Cost control
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
Introduction
EN ISO 13790
(Energy performance of buildings—
Calculation of energy use for
spaces—heating and cooling)
provides indications and rules on the
calculation methods for the design
and evaluation of thermal and energy
performance of buildings
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
LU2
LU3
evaluating compliance with regulations and laws
P
U
R
P
O
S
E
S
comparing the energy performance of various
design alternatives for a building
energy certification of buildings
assessing the effect of possible refurbishment
measures on existing buildings
Basic methods
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Quasi steady-state
Dynamic
calculating the heat
balance over one month or
the whole season, taking
into account dynamic
effects by the simplified
determination of a gain
utilization factor
calculating the heat
balance over 1 h and
taking into account the
heat stored and released
from the mass of the
building in a detailed way
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
European standard ISO 13790 – an overview
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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LU3
Definition and overview
Introduction
Classification
Definition
Building
refurbishment
Thermal bridge is defined as part
of the building envelope, where t
he uniform thermal resistance is
significantly changed by full or
partial penetration of the building
envelope by materials with a
different thermal conductivity,
change in thickness of the fabric,
or a difference between internal
and external areas, such as occur
at wall/floor/ceiling junctions (EN
ISO 10211 Standard)
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Repeating
Non-repeating
where they
follow a regular
pattern, e.g., wall
ties penetrating a
cavity wall
e.g. a single
lintel crossing a
cavity wall
Geometrical
at the junction of two planes, e.g., the
corners of walls, or wall/ceiling junctions
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Thermal bridges – definition & overview
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
LU2
LU3
Types of thermal bridges
Introduction
Geometric thermal bridges
Building
refurbishment
A consequence of the three
dimensional character of a
building: angles and corners,
inner and outer reveals
around windows, etc
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Structural thermal bridges
Modern
technology
The consequence of structural decisions.
Examples: steel or concrete girders and
columns that penetrate the envelope,
discontinuities in the thermal insulation.
Structural thermal bridges could be there
for reasons of structural integrity
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Hens H. Building physics – heat, air and moisture. Berlin GE: Ernst & Sohn Verlag; 2007
Thermal bridges – types
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
LU2
LU3
Rules to follow:
Introduction
Structural thermal bridges
Geometric thermal bridges
Building
refurbishment
Neutralize geometric
thermal bridges by
assuring continuity of
the thermal insulation
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Avoid structural thermal bridges
by paying attention to continuity
of the insulation layer. It should
be possible to go around the
building drawings with a tracer
in the insulation, without
crossing any element that
forms an easy path for heat
between the inside and the
outside
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Hens H. Building physics – heat, air and moisture. Berlin GE: Ernst & Sohn Verlag; 2007
Thermal bridges – rules to follow
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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LU2
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Thermal bridges evaluation
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
The linear thermal transmittance w [W/(m
K)] is used for calculation of the whole heat
flow. It represents the heat flow rate in
steady-state conditions, divided by the
length of the junction and by the temperature
difference between internal and external
surfaces
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
EN ISO 14683 gives reference values
for some standard structures referring
to a catalogue of thermal bridges and
values of ‘w’ in relation to some
different geometrical dimension
The EN ISO 10211 Standard provides for the definition of
a geometrical model of a thermal bridge for the numerical
calculation of heat flows and surface temperatures considering
the following assumptions:
Modern
technology
1. all physical properties are independent from temperature;
2. there are no heat sources within the building element
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Magrini A. Building refurbishment for energy performance. A global approach. Dordrecht CH: Springer International Publishing; 2014
Thermal bridges – evaluation
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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LU3
Thermal bridges evaluation
Introduction
In case of old existing buildings, if detailed information about thermal bridges
is not available, EN ISO 13790 allows us to evaluate their influence in a simplified way,
as a percentage increase in the wall thermal transmittance
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
simplified calculation
requires the determination of the
length and the linear thermal
transmittance for each twodimensional joint, applying ISO
14683 (analytical method)
the incidence of thermal bridges is
evaluated by increasing the thermal
transmittance of the wall by a
percentage adjustment coefficient,
which depends on wall typology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
calculations allow to verify all the possible
solutions for structural linkages and to
provide a more accurate energy model of
buildings
it is possible to obtain an underestimation of
their influence, which can be more significant
as much as the building is insulated, and it
could bring to obtain a more efficient energy
class than the real one
NOTE
NOTE
Modern
technology
analytical calculation
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Thermal bridges – evaluation
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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Introduction
1
Building
refurbishment
2
Project team
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
3
4
Developer (money)
Architect (design)
NOTE
MEP engineers (mechanical, electrical and plumbing
5
Modern
technology
Project manager
Expert in historic preservation
6
Renewable
energy
Expert in energy conservation
7
Cost control
Expert in renewable energy systems
The most important element
in developing and
undertaking a treatment plan
for an old or historic building
is communication—ensuring
that each member of the
project team understands the
basis on which the work will
be done and the goals of the
project
Applied from: Cullinane JJ. Maintaining and reparing old and historic buildings. Hoboken NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 2013
Refurbishment action – developing the plan
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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Developing the plan - 9 steps
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Step 1
Assemble all of the survey data and documentation
Step 2
Identify the significance of the property and its contributing elements
Step 3
Identify the use of the property
Step 4
Identify the design parameters and limitations
Step 5
Determine the primary treatment—preservation, rehabilitation, restoration, or
reconstruction
Step 6
Identify changes that would be required to meet program needs, code
compliance, and standards
Step 7
Evaluate the effect of the changes on the significance and fabric of the property.
(For historic buildings they would be defined as “No Effect,” “No Adverse Effect,”
or “Adverse Effect.”
Step 8
Identify the primary issues that will affect treatment of the property—
structural, systems failure, deterioration of materials, building function,
accessibility, security, energy conservation, budget, schedule, and reviews
Step 9
Initiate design
Applied from: Cullinane JJ. Maintaining and reparing old and historic buildings. Hoboken NJ: John Wiley & Sons; 2013
Refurbishment action – developing the plan - steps
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
Simplified energy balance for building during heating season
Introduction
Thermal gains
Building
refurbishment
Thermal Losses
Renewable sources
Envelope
Assessment
& evaluation
Opaque walls
Solar gains
Material
science
Windows
Building
Roofs
Internal gains
LU2
LU3
The thermal losses from
the envelope increase as
the outside temperature
decreases, with a
dependency upon the
values of the thermal
resistance of the individual
building components
Better insulation,
increasing the thermal
resistance to the passage
of heat, therefore helps to
reduce heat losses
Basements
Modern
technology
Ventilation
Renewable
energy
Heating system
Cost control
The global energy losses
for heating are the sum of
the losses due to thermal
dispersions through the
envelope and the losses
due to ventilation of
spaces
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Refurbishment action – energy balance
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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LU3
Airtightness
Introduction
Air barrier can be defined as one with a
maximum air permanence of 0.05m3/h/m2 at
50Pa. Airtightness barrier must form a
continuous envelope around the structure
within the insulation. This is easier if
Gaps of
you are renovating the whole
various
building
widths were
then made in
the vapour
Intelligent membrans
barrier affect
airtightness
Airtight membranes with variable
Measuring airtightness
Building
refurbishment
‘Air changes per hour’ at the artificially
induced pressure of 50 Pa is the
accepted metric for measuring
airtightness
Assessment
& evaluation
Measuring airtightness
Material
science
The rate of air leakage is in terms
of whole building permeability, or the volume
of air leaking per hour per square metre
(m3/h/m2) of total surface area (ceiling area +
wall area + floor area) at 50 Pa
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
vapour resistance. They are able to
resist vapour migrating into structural
elements. Membrans can be used in
combination with ventilation
Installers must strive for the
total elimination of gaps
Cost control
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Refurbishment action – airtightness
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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LU3
Cavity wall insulation
Introduction
Insulation procedure
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
1
installers should survey the cavity, and proceed only if the wall
meets standards
2
injection holes are drilled through the mortar joints at 1m
intervals
3
barriers are installed to prevent the fill entering next door’s
cavities
4
air ventilators that cross the cavity are sleeved (or sealed, if
obsolete)
5
the insulant is injected
6
quality checks are carried out
7
the holes are filled with colour-matched mortar/render
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Refurbishment action – cavity wall insulation
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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LU3
Cavity wall insulation
Introduction
Problems
with
cavity wall
insulation
Building
refurbishment
internal
condensation
caused by
gaps in the
insulation
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
damp in
geographical
areas where
the wall faces
driving rain
increased
corrosion of
wall ties
Cavity walls
not suitable
for insulation
can be
treated as
solid walls
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Refurbishment action – cavity wall insulation
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
LU2
LU3
External wall insulation
External wall insulation involves applying an insulating layer and a decorative weatherproof finish to
the outside wall of a building. The aim is to reach U-values of below 0.30W/m2K (half of this
for Passivhaus standard)
Introduction
Systems available
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Wet render systems
Dry cladding systems
Traditional and polymer-modified
cementitious render can be used
in low-rise and high-rise
applications. Polymer helps make
the render more workable on site
and gives weather protection and
flexibility
The insulant may be
independently fixed to the
substrate with a mechanical or
adhesive fixing, or partially
retained by the framework (treated
timber, steel or aluminium)
System includes: insulant;
adhesive mortar, mechanical
fixings; profiles and edgings used
on corners, a base-coat render; a
top-coat render, with or without a
finish
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
They are cheaper than dry
cladding
CAUTION: quality is variable
Cost control
System includes: insulant, fixed
to the substrate similar to wet
render system; a supporting
framework or cladding fixing
system; ventilated cavity; cladding
material and fixings
Most systems incorporate a
ventilation cavity between the
cladding and the insulation to ensure
that any penetrating moisture is
carried away
Bespoke systems
Designed for individual
projects and tend to have
simple detailing, allowing a
non-specialist to construct
them. A typical design may
consist of a rainscreen
fastened onto a substrate
such as single blockwork
with timber framing. Timber
studwork and a sheathing
material create a 250mm
cavity filled with loose
cellulose insulation
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Refurbishment action – external wall insulation
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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Internal insulation
Introduction
Techniques used for internal insulation
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Insulated
plasterboard
thermal boards glued directly on to the internal walls. There
must be absolutely no gaps between the boards. Leave a small
cavity between the internal wall surface and the insulation.
Some even recommend spreading adhesive over the entire
surface area to eliminate the possibility of any air movement
Studs
they are employed on a wall that has previously suffered from
damp. Create a cavity between the internal wall surface and the
insulation. Studwork is good where the wall is bowed or uneven
and space is not at a premium
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Refurbishment action – internal insulation
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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Roof insulation
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
loft
loft
insulation
insulation
Assessment
& evaluation
internal
internal roof
roof
insulation
insulation
Roof
insulation
includes
Material
science
Modern
technology
flat roof
insulation
external roof
insulation
Renewable
energy
Cost control
NOTE:
In all cases,
before work
begins,
inspect
timbers for
damage
and repair if
necessary
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Refurbishment action – roof insulation
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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Floor insulation
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Heat loss through exposed floors can be
reduced by up to 60 per cent but much
depends on their size and shape, the type
of floor and the conductivity of the ground
below it
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Heat loss is
greatest around
the edges
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Refurbishment action – floor insulation
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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Floor insulation
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Aim for an R-value of 2.5m2K/W; this will generally achieve a
U-value between 0.20 and 0.25W/m2K. Ideally, a concrete
floor with no insulation and damp-proof membrane beneath it
should be taken up and the whole job started afresh
Solid concrete floors
Where this is not possible, the only choice is to install
insulation and a new deck on top, but the higher floor is likely
to cause problems at stairs and door thresholds. You need a
minimum 60mm layer of phenolic, polyisocyanurate or
polyurethane foam insulant; 200mm would be perfect
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Refurbishment action – floor insulation
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
Learning Unit 1: Comparison of standard assessment methods
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Floor insulation
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Aim for an R-value of 3.5m2K/W; this will generally achieve a
U-value between 0.20 and 0.25W/m2K. Use mineral wool or
rigid insulating boards. It should fill the space between the
joists and be the full depth of the joist. If there is a cellar or
basement, insulation under the ground floor might be
installed from below. Fit the insulation tight up to the
underside of the floor but not over-compressed
Suspended timber floors
CAUTION: Do not install a vapour control layer – it can
trap spilt water. Ensure the under-floor void is well
ventilated
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Refurbishment action – floor insulation
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
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Definition
Introduction
i
Building
refurbishment
A technique aiming at the assessment of hazards for the
environment connected with products or services, both by
identification and quantitative evaluation of the consumed
materials and energy, wastes and assessment of the effect of
materials, energy and wastes on the environment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
i
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Assessment concerns the full cycle of life of the product or
service, starting with extracting and processing of mineral raw
materials, the production process of goods, distribution,
consumption, secondary utilisation and final decommissioning
and transport
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Principles of life-cycle assessment in the construction sector
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
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Hazards affecting the environment
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
effect on the quality of ecosystems (contamination,
disposal of wastes)
Material
science
effect on human health (occupational diseases, safety of work)
Modern
technology
depletion of natural resources involving (degradation of sites)
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Principles of life-cycle assessment in the construction sector
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
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Lifecycle of a product or service
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Gathering
of raw
materials
Assessment
& evaluation
Exploitation
Processing
of raw
materials
Material
science
Manufacturing
Recovering
Modern
technology
Disposal
Renewable
energy
Recycling
Cost control
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Principles of life-cycle assessment in the construction sector
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
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Stages of LCA
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Definition
of the goal
and scope
Inventory
analysis
Impact
assessment
Interpretation
1
2
3
4
Determine the exact details of
the boundaries and level of the
analysis. The boundaries
define the set of unit
processes included in the
analysis. The unit process is a
smallest part of the system of
the product for which the input
data are gathered
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
The following data are gathered for each
unit process:
• data on the amount of supplied energy
and materials, • information concerning
amount of wastes, • the amount of noxious
contaminating emissions
The input and output quantities should
refer to the functional unit
1
Cost control
2
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Principles of life-cycle assessment in the construction sector
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
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Stages of LCA cont.
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Definition
of the goal
and scope
Inventory
analysis
Impact
assessment
Interpretation
1
2
3
4
◊ Identification of the main factors
influencing the given category of
effects;
◊ Assessment of the credibility of the
achieved results;
◊ The completeness of information is
checked, and the sensitivity and
uncertainty are analyzed;
◊ Evaluation of the LCA report by
independent experts
4
Assessment of the effect of the
input and output fluxes. The
index of the given category of
effect on the environment is
calculated
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
3
Cost control
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Principles of life-cycle assessment in the construction sector
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
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Input and output flows of materials, energy and pollutants
from a life cycle perspective
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
input
Assessment
& evaluation
Raw material extraction
Manufacturing
Materials
Material
science
Emissions
Distribution/transport
Energy
Wastes
Use & maintenance
Modern
technology
Disposal & recycling
output
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Adopted from: Torgal-Pacheco F, et al. Eco-efficient construction and building materials. Cambridge UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd.; 2014
Principles of life-cycle assessment in the construction sector
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
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Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Simplified methodology can facilitate
life cycle energy performance
evaluation, through the combination
of embodied energy data for products
with energy assessment tools already
applied for the use stage of the
buildings
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
The embodied energy of the
products means all energy inputs
to a product, expressed in primary
energy, from extraction to
manufacturing, until the product
leaves the factory gate
Full life cycle energy performance
evaluation also include transport
to the building site, construction
processes and the ‘end of life’ part
of the life cycle, considering
demolition and recycling potential
or landfill
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Simplified methodology for refurbishment project
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
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Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
Introduction
Assessment
& evaluation
LU3
Annual
energy
savingscalculation
rules
Energy use calculations have evolved from steadystate heat loss and semi-static monthly energy
demand calculations to complex dynamic energy
performance simulation tools which can
model annual energy use over very short intervals
(hours, minutes, even to a fraction of a second)
Building
refurbishment
LU2
International standards such as EN ISO 13790 ‘Energy
performance of buildings—Calculation of energy use for
space heating and cooling’, which include monthly
calculation methodologies, are considered of sufficient
accuracy for application in energy certification. Factors such
as plug-in loads and equipment are generally excluded in
some calculation methods, particularly in energy rating and
certification methods
Material
science
Modern
technology
In refurbishment projects, and particularly if the typology
and pattern of use of the building are not expected to
change after refurbishment, it is generally good practice
to analyse historical energy use in the building to more
accurately estimate potential energy savings
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Annual energy savings
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Step 1
Building
refurbishment
Studied
Refurbishment
Project
OCCUPANCY
LOCATION
Assessment
& evaluation
Energy
performance
assessment
Annual
energy
savings
Step 3
Life cycle
energy
performance
Existing &
refurbishment
scenario
Material
science
(materials,
energy
systems, etc)
Refurbishment
products &
systems
Modern
technology
Embodied
energy data
Annualized
embodied
energy
Lifetime
database or
estimation
Step 2
Renewable
energy
Flow diagram of proposed methodology for life cycle energy performance evaluation
of refurbishment projects
Cost control
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Calculation of life-cycle energy performance
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
From a life cycle energy
perspective, the annual energy
savings of a building refurbishment
project must only be taken into
account after the embodied energy
of added building components and
systems is subtracted
In building refurbishment projects the
impact of the building materials can be
discounted to the expected energy
savings from the refurbishment project.
The life cycle energy performance of the
refurbishment project will consider both
the energy savings and the embodied
energy
The AEE (added embodied energy) is
always above zero in a refurbishment
project when we need to add new
products and systems, but ideally the
added embodied energy should be as low
as possible to ensure that large life cycle
energy savings are achieved
When we refurbish a building towards
‘zero-energy’ use in operation, or even to
be an ‘energy-positive’ building, this
requires the installation of some form of
renewable energy systems
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Calculation of life-cycle energy performance
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
LU2
LU3
To support practitioners willing to consider building energy refurbishment projects from a life cycle
perspective and use it as an input for the design, the concept of ‘NER’ can be introduced
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
NER indicator, frequently
used in the renewable
energy field, sometimes
also called Energy Return
of Investment, Energy
Returned on Energy
Invested or Energy Yield
Ratio, can be represented
for the refurbishment of
an existing building
through the following
formula:
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
𝑁𝐸𝑅 =
Renewable
energy
𝐴𝐸𝑈1 − 𝐴𝐸𝑈2
𝐴𝐸𝐸2 − 𝐴𝐸𝐸1
where: AEU – Annual Energy Use
AEE- Annualized Embodied Energy
Cost control
The NER can be defined for
building refurbishment as
the ratio of the decrease in
annual energy use (annual
energy savings) to the
increase in AEE. This ratio
can be used to compare
refurbishment options for
improving energy
performance in use: the
higher the NER of a
particular refurbishment
strategy, the more
effective it will be in
delivering life cycle energy
savings
All options where the NER
is greater than one will
contribute to an
improvement in life cycle
energy performance, an
energy saved over the life
cycle. The higher the NER
of a refurbishment strategy,
the larger the life cycle
energy savings
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Life-cycle energy optimization
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
Learning Unit 2: Life-cycle energy performance evaluation
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU2
LU3
EXAMPLE
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
LU1
The first layer of insulation in a typical existing house would normally yield very high
NER, as would save a large amount of energy with a small amount of material.
Subsequent layers of insulation, while adding to the total embodied
energy, would not deliver an equivalent energy saving, and so a refurbishment
of a building envelope would represent a diminishing NER as we increase the insulation
thickness
Technologies such as solar water or space heating systems would also
generally represent a diminishing NER with the size of the installation,
as the annual solar input rate per square metre of installation decreases at
constant heat demand, once we have surpassed the summer base load
with the summer solar input
This frequently occurs with large solar installations, which are in practice oversized
for the summer, and progressive increases in collector sizes do increase embodied
energy but not proportionally increase the solar energy input. Technologies such as
PV, however, will have a practically constant NER independent of their size as
the production of electricity will be proportional to the quantity of materials
used in their production and installation
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Life-cycle energy optimization
12
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Definition of energy audit
Building
refurbishment
The definition provided in the Standard EN
16247-1:20122, defines the energy audit as
‘‘a systematic procedure to obtain an
adequate knowledge of the profiles of
energy consumption of an existing building
or group of buildings, an industrial and
service private or public, in order to identify
and quantify in terms of cost effectiveness
of energy saving opportunities and the
relationship of what is revealed’’
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Principles of energy audit – types of energy audit
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
LU2
LU3
Walkthrough audit
Introduction
The main purpose of a walkthrough audit
is to provide recommendations for
improving the energy efficiency of the
residence by investigating selected
operating and maintenance measures
(O&Ms) and energy efficiency measures
(EEMs) with short payback periods
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Walkthrough audit allows the collection of basic
information about the building envelope
(windows, walls, and doors), and the lighting
fixtures, appliances, and heating and cooling
systems. The auditor should meet and talk
to the building owners and occupants to
determine any problematic areas of the
building related to thermal comfort and
energy performance
This audit consists of a short onsite visit of the facility to identify
areas where simple and
inexpensive actions can provide
immediate energy use or
operating cost savings
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Principles of energy audit – types of energy audit
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
LU2
LU3
Standard energy audit (SEA)
Introduction
The standard audit provides a
comprehensive energy analysis for the
energy systems of the facility.
It includes the development of a baseline
for the energy use of the facility and the
evaluation of the energy savings and the
cost-effectiveness of appropriately
selected energy conservation measures
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Simplified tools are used to develop baseline
energy models and to predict the energy
savings of energy conservation measures.
The standard energy audit includes a
walkthrough energy audit, a utility data
analysis, a detailed energy modeling analysis,
and an economic analysis to recommend
cost-effective energy efficiency measures
Standard audit may involve some “spot
measurement” of parameters such as
motor power, space temperature and
relative humidity, and airflow rates, where
necessary. It is useful exercises to be
carried out before a detailed study so that
the resources available for the detailed
study can be better utilized
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Principles of energy audit – types of energy audit
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
LU2
LU3
Detailed energy audit (DEA)
Introduction
In the detailed energy audit, more rigorous
economical evaluation of the energy conservation
measures is generally performed. Specifically, the
cost-effectiveness of energy retrofits may be
determined based on the life cycle cost (LCC)
analysis rather than the simple payback period
analysis. LCC analysis takes into account a
number of economic parameters, such as
interest, inflation, and tax rates
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
DEA focuses on potential optimization and capital
intensive projects identified or short-listed during
Standard Energy Audits and involve more
detailed field data gathering and engineering
analysis. They also provide detailed project cost
and savings information with a high level of
confidence, sufficient for major capital
investment decisions. It is sometimes called
investment grade audits (IGA)
DEA includes the following tasks:
1. Introductory meeting. Kick off meeting
with the facility management team
2. Audit interviews: to meet the relevant
people to gather accurate information.
3. Data collection and logging - is the
most important part of the detailed
study, where data on equipment and
operations is collected
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Principles of energy audit – types of energy audit
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
LU2
LU3
Energy audits and energy certification, an integrated approach
Introduction
Walkthrough audit
Building
refurbishment
Consistent conditions
YES
Assessment
& evaluation
Check
NO
Complex building
Material
science
YES
Check
Modern
technology
NO
Standard audit
Simulation audit
Retrofit measures
implementation
Renewable
energy
Energy certification
Cost control
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Principles of energy audit – types of energy audit
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
LU2
LU3
Auditor decides what are the measures to be
proposed, assesses the costs and checks the benefits
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Green Energy Audit Report should contain the following information:
Assessment
& evaluation
analysis of the current situation
definition of the baseline
Material
science
description of the proposed retrofit measures
economic evaluations of these retrofit measures
Modern
technology
environmental assessments of these retrofit measures
definition of the management and maintenance plan
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Planning green energy audit in buildings
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
LU2
LU3
Reporting for Walkthrough Audit
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
1
Renewable
energy
Describe the basic energy systems of the
building, including building envelope,
mechanical systems, and electrical systems
2
Perform basic testing and measurements to
assess the basic performance of various
energy systems
3
Identify some potential operation and
maintenance (O&M) measures and energy
conservation measures (ECMs) as well as any
measures required to improve comfort
problems
Material
science
Modern
technology
Sections of the final Report
Tasks to do:
4
Evaluate the energy savings (or requirements
if measures are needed to improve comfort)
using simplified analysis methods
1
Legible and complete drawings showing the
floor plan and at least two elevation views
2
A brief description of the architectural
features and energy systems of the building
3
A description of any testing procedures or
measurements
4
A discussion of the walkthrough audit tasks
and its outcome
5
A description of the calculation details to
estimate energy use and cost savings
6
A summary of the energy and economic
analysis results
7
Some photos to highlight some of the
features and the problem areas of the house
walkthrough audit can be a stand-alone
task or part of a standard energy audit
Cost control
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Practical advices – reporting for Walkthrough Audit
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
LU2
LU3
Reporting for Standard Audit
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Sections of the final Report
Tasks to do:
1
Carry out a detailed survey of lighting and
electrical equipment
1
Legible and complete drawings showing the
floor plan and at least two elevation views
2
Identify HVAC systems and their operation
schedules
2
A brief description of the features of the
building and its systems
3
Perform any relevant measurements, such as
lighting levels, thermal images, airflow rates,
and so on
3
A summary of the walkthrough audit findings
and results
4
Model the existing building using a detailed
energy simulation tool
4
Basic assumptions made to model the building
using a detailed simulation tool
5
Perform engineering calculations to estimate energy
savings from potential energy conservation measures
5
Description of the calibration process
6
Perform an economic analysis for all the
energy conservation measures
6
A summary of the economic analysis
7
Select the energy conservation measures to
be recommended for implementation
7
A list of the implementation priority based on
the economic analysis
standard energy audit also includes
tasks from walkthrough audit
Cost control
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Practical advices – reporting for Standard Audit
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
LU2
LU3
Thermal zone
Introduction
The building or the building complex is divided into thermal zones - independent parts of the
building, characterised by the different usage made, HVAC or electrical facilities, with different
criteria of usage or independent indoor environmental control systems and management
Building
refurbishment
Geometric characteristics and facility equipment of the building complex
Assessment
& evaluation
Thermal
Zone No.
Gross
Volume (m3)
Description
Net Floor
Area (m2)
Facility
equipment
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Practical advices – reporting for Standard Audit
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
Checklist of technical documents for building
features
Building
refurbishment
Documents
Material
science
Teritorial framework
Description
Checklist of technical documents for building
facilities features
Documents
Plan with teritorial framework of
the building enables to define the
guidelines and the context
surrounding area (shadow,
vegetation, etc)
Design drawings
Project on plan
HVAC System
Other
Functional diagrams
Elevations (scale)
Characteristics of opaque
envelope
Electrical systems
Project on plan
Technical support
Safety report
Characteristics of transparent
envelope
Other facilities
Other (specify)
Cost control
Technical support
Safety report
Sections (scale…)
Building envelope
Description
Functional diagrams
Plans (scale…)
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
LU3
Technical and operating documentation
Introduction
Assessment
& evaluation
LU2
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Practical advices – reporting for Standard Audit
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
Introduction
LU2
LU3
Green energy audit goals
1. to contribute to an overall improvement in the
sustainability of the building.
2. conservation of energy becomes conservation of
resources.
3. the auditor has two objectives: to maximise
energy performance and to maximise
environmental quality;
4. measures that use renewable energy are
preferred;
5. the auditor considers all natural solutions in the
building, such as green roofs, green facades,
natural shading systems, passive solar and daylighting systems;
6. evaluation of sustainability targets
(LEED, BREEAMS, others)
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Jayamaha L. Energy efficient building systems. New York NY: McGraw Hill; 2006
From energy audit to green audit
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Energy auditor experience
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
• green/sustainable design of
buildings;
• design of energy systems
(mechanical and electrical);
• energy management;
• energy accounting;
• international environmental
protocols (LEED, BREEAMS or
others)
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Energy auditor skills
• the ability to operate in the field;
• a knowledge of current security issues;
• competence in using survey and
monitoring instruments;
• the ability to communicate and interact
not only with the client but also with his
staff;
• the ability to write the audit reports
clearly and effectively;
• ensured continuing professional
development (CPD), covering all updates
in norms and regulations so that there
can also be;
• the availability to allow for and handle
continuous updating of the technical and
legislative requirements
• confidentiality in handling information
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
From energy audit to green audit – energy auditor
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Module 2: Assessment & evaluation
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Energy audit in buildings
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Owner/client
Owner/client
Facility manager
Maintenance manager
Contract definition
Acquisition of docs
Facility management
Activities plan
Definiton of consumption
indicators
Owner/client
Facility manager
Maintenance manager
Building facilities
Field survey
Benchmark
Environmental
condition
Measures
Monitoring
Baseline definition
Owner/client
Owner/client
Choice of retrofit measures
Sustainability evaluation of the
measures
Audit report
Technical evaluation
Economic evaluation
LEED Protocol
LU3
Flow diagram of a green energy audit process
Introduction
LU2
Green Energy Plan
Applied from: Dall’O G. Green energy audit of buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
From energy audit to green audit – energy auditor
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Module 3: Material science
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Learning objectives. To give:
1. basic knowledge on energy efficiency and thermal comfort in
buildings;
2. knowledge on various categories of building materials, their
characteristics and use;
3. knowledge on modern technologies used in energy efficient
buildings.
Cost control
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Basics of building physics
LU2
LU3
Heat exists in sensitive form, which means temperature-related, or in latent form,
which means as transformation heat
Introduction
Sensitive heat is transferred by:
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
heat is transferred
between solids at
different
temperature in
contact with each
other and
between points at
different
temperature
within the same
solid
occurs in a
pronounced way
close to the
contact between
liquids and gases
at one side and
solids at the
other. We
distinguish forced,
natural and mixed
convection
radiation
refers to heat
transfer, caused
by the emission
and absorption of
electromagnetic
waves. Heat
transfer through
radiation does not
need a medium
Latent heat moves
along with a carrier,
independent of
temperature. Each time
the carrier undergoes a
change of state, related
latent heat is converted
into sensitive heat or vice
versa
Example:
when water evaporates, it
absorbs sensitive heat in
a quantity equal to its
latent heat of evaporation
Applied from: Hens H. Building physics – heat, air and moisture. Berlin GE: Ernst & Sohn Verlag; 2007
Heat & mass transport - definition
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Basics of building physics
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Mass transferThe term ‘mass
transfer’ points to the transfer of
air, water vapour, water, dissolved
solids, gases and liquids in and
through materials and building
constructions.
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
As examples, we have the airfow in
a room, the transport of water
vapour through a roof, the
movement of water and salts in
bricks, the diffusion of blowing
agents out of insulation materials
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Air and moisture are of the utmost importance
for the physical integrity of buildings. When the
open pores in a material are not filled with
water, they contain humid air. Water can enter a
pore only when the humid air is pushed out
Moisture is the most destructive for buildings.
A correct moisture tolerance is a challenge for
each designer and builder. The word ‘moisture’
indicates that water in porous materials is
present in its two or three phases, with different
substances dissolved in the liquid phase
Applied from: Hens H. Building physics – heat, air and moisture. Berlin GE: Ernst & Sohn Verlag; 2007
Heat & mass transport - definition
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Basics of building physics
LU2
LU3
Introduction
people
A
c
t
i
v
e
h
e
a
t
i
n
g
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
A
c
t
i
v
e
c
o
o
l
i
n
g
equipment
lighting
solar gain
conduction
ventilation
Modern
technology
Moving target
Fabric storage
Renewable
energy
Different levels of refurbishment
offer greater or lesser
opportunities to affect all the
elements of the balance to set
the building up for the next
phase of its life, from improving
the efficiency of mechanical
systems to altering the size and
distribution of heat loads from
people, equipment and lighting,
and even to altering
characteristics of the building
envelope through changes to the
facade or exposing previously
inaccessible thermal mass
Balance of heat inputs and losses from a building in a cool climate
Cost control
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Heat & mass transport
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Basics of building physics
Introduction
Hygroscopicity and capillarity measure
the capacity of a material to absorb
and desorb water as a gas (water
vapour) and liquid respectively, from
and to the air, or condensation, as the
relative humidity of the air changes
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
LU2
LU3
The speed with which a wall surface
can absorb moisture is important for
avoiding surface condensation.
Materials with a combination of vapour
permeability and high absorption can
quickly moderate humidity variations by
storing or releasing significant
quantities of water
The hygroscopic capacity of a material
is related to its equilibrium moisture
content and is sometimes measured as
the percentage increase in water
content in a material when the relative
humidity increases from 50% to 85%
with a constant temperature of 21°C
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Hens H. Building physics – heat, air and moisture. Berlin GE: Ernst & Sohn Verlag; 2007
Hygrothermal behavior in buildings – hygroscopic capillary properties
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Basics of building physics
Introduction
LU2
LU3
Air pressure difference
Building
refurbishment
Solar radiation
(direct and diffuse)
Interior
Heat exchange with
outdoor environment
Exterior
Assessment
& evaluation
Heat exchange with
indoor environment
Wind driven rain
Material
science
Vapour exchange with
indoor air
Vapour exchange
with outdoor air
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
The main
function of
a building
envelope is
the protection
of an
enclosed
space from
the natural
exterior
environment
Groundwater
Hygrothermal loads and their alternating diurnal or seasonal directions acting on the
building envelope according to ASHRAE
Cost control
Applied from: Hens H. Building physics – heat, air and moisture. Berlin GE: Ernst & Sohn Verlag; 2007
Hygrothermal behavior in buildings – hygrothermal loads
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Basics of building physics
LU2
LU3
Types of ventilation systems
Introduction
Mechanical ventilation
Building
refurbishment
Ventilation is provided by a network of ducts,
powered by a fan or fans
Natural ventilation
Basic types of mechanical system:
Assessment
& evaluation
ventilation arises from
flows through openings in
the envelope, which are
generated by the natural
forces due to wind and
buoyancy (gravity).
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Extract only
the air is
extracted
through ducts,
with openings
in the envelope
providing the
route for air
supply
Supply only
Supply & extract
air is supplied
through the
ducts, and
openings in the
envelope
provide the
exhaust route
separate duct
networks perform
the supply and
extract functions,
which, if the mass
flow rates are
equal, is referred
to as a balanced
system
Applied from: Hall MR. Materials for energy efficiency and thermal comfort in buildings. Cambridge UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd; 2010
Ventilation & air quality – ventilation systems
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Basics of building physics
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
can improve energy
efficiency by conserving
energy, that otherwise would
have been wasted, for later
use. Additionally the
fluctuations of temperature
that compromise the
efficiency of thermal systems
may also be minimised
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
The role
of thermal
energy
storage
can maximise the output
from an intermittent
renewable energy supply
source, such as solar
radiation, by increasing
its accessibility to
applications such as
building cooling and
heating
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Hall MR. Materials for energy efficiency and thermal comfort in buildings. Cambridge UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd; 2010
Heat energy storage & cooling
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Basics of building physics
Introduction
The materials used as storage media
are in either solid or liquid phases. Solid
materials possess thermal density
values far higher than liquid media. The
thermal density of concrete is
approximately 466 times greater than
that of water at 20 ºC
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
The term ‘phase change material’ (PCM)
refers to materials that store thermal
energy in the phase change from solid
to liquid. PCMs can broadly be arranged
into two categories: salt hydrates and
organic materials
Material
science
Chemical thermal storage materials
work as pairs in thermal storage
systems. The sorbent is a component of
the working pair in a sorption type
chemical thermal storage system. The
sorbent is not responsible for storing
the thermal energy, and thus, its
thermal mass is not of major concern
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU2
LU3
Materials for
sensible heat
storage
The large size, non-metallic solid blocks
are not suitable for applications that
require high rate heat storage with a
frequent charge/discharge cycle.
Metallic solid materials perform much
better in this respect, though the high
cost of the metals makes it uneconomic
Materials for
latent heat
storage PCM
The encapsulated small PCM particles
reduce the heat travel distance within
the PCM and provide a larger specific
surface to volume ratio; this is an
effective way to improve the overall
heat transfer of the latent heat storage
systems
Materials for
chemical
heat storage
Chemical thermal storage is very
suitable for incorporating with certain
heat powered refrigeration systems,
such as vapour absorption and
adsorption, to provide cooling to
buildings. The working pairs used in
these systems can be used directly as
thermal storage materials
Applied from: Hall MR. Materials for energy efficiency and thermal comfort in buildings. Cambridge UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd; 2010
Heat energy storage & cooling - materials
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 1: Basics of building physics
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Type
ISO
Description
Type I
3rd party
environmental
labelling BS EN ISO
14024:2001
Label: 3rd party standard that awards
a licence which authorises the use of
labels on product within particular
category based on life-cycle
consideration. Commonly reffered to
as ECOLABELS
Type
II
Self declared
environmental
claims BS EN ISO
14021:2001
Claim: self-declared claim as
statement or symbol indicating
environmental aspect of a product
(product is recyclable, for instance)
Type
III
3rd party verified
environmental
declaration (EPD)
BS EN ISO
14025:2006
Declaration: a set of quantified
environmental data consisting of preset parameters based on LCA
according to ISO 14040.
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Environmental labelling and declaration according to BS EN ISO 14020
Cost control
Environmental profiling of building materials
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Materials for improving energy efficiency
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Thermal
conductivity (k)
Thermal conductivity, k (also known as psi), tells us how well a material
conducts heat
R-value
The R-value is a measure of how well a material resists heat travelling through
it. It is the ratio of the temperature difference across an insulator and the heat
flow per unit area through it. The bigger the number the better the insulator
U-value
R-value is the reciprocal of U-value (and vice versa). A lower U-value is better
indicating greater insulation value. It is commonly used in Europe describing the
rate of heat transfer through a building element over a given area, under
standardized conditions
Easy of
installation
Sheets and batts are perfect for large areas, where the distances between
joists are standard sizes or where shapes are rectangular. Loose-fill cellulose
can easily be blown into a horizontal space and unusual shapes
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Thermal insulation of buildings
is one of the most effective
ways to save energy resources
for heating and cooling
Cost
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Thorpe D. Sustainable home refurbishment. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
High performance insulation materials – description of insulation
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Materials for improving energy efficiency
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Wood fibre batts
Cotton-based batts and rolls
K-value: 0.038–0.043W/mK
(CIBSE, 2006). A recyclable,
renewable resource with a low
embodied energy Safe to install.
Can absorb some moisture whilst
remaining efficient, but when very
wet assumes the U-value of water
– high. Naturally resistant to decay
and fungus. Expensive
K-value: 0.038–0.043W/mK.
Hygroscopic up to 20 per cent.
Easy and safe to install, no
irritating fibres. Good dimensional
stability. Recyclable, renewable,
biodegradable, non-hazardous.
Good for most structural elements.
Embodied energy: 20MJ/kg or
2800MJ/m3 at 140kg/m3
K-value: 0.038–0.043W/mK.
Recyclable, a natural, nonhazardous fibre that’s safe to
install. Cotton mill scraps or
recycled cotton is mixed with a
bulking fibre such as hemp and a
thermoplastic binder like polyester
Cellulose (loose, batt or board)
Flax batts, slabs and rolls
Hemp batts
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU3
Sheep’s wool batts and rolls
K-value: 0.038–0.040W/mK.
Recyclable, renewable, made from
finely shredded newspaper, safe to
install. Loose-fill is blown in dry,
e.g. in lofts, or wet on nonhorizontal spaces
Modern
technology
LU2
K-value: approximately
0.042W/mK. Made from a plant
whose fibres are bound together
with potato starch and treated
with borax to make them fire and
insect resistant. Recyclable,
renewable, a natural, nonhazardous fibre, safe to install
K-value: 0.043W/mK. Recyclable,
renewable, natural, nonhazardous.
Like wool and cotton batts,
contains 15 per cent polyester
fibre to retain lift and stability and
borax. Biodegradable. Relatively
expensive
Applied from: Thorpe D. Sustainable home refurbishment. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
Organic materials
High performance insulation materials – thermal properties of materials
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Materials for improving energy efficiency
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
LU3
Coconut fibre board
Cork board
Wood fibre board
K-value: 0.045W/mK. Made from
the outer husk of coconuts with
borax and minimal processing.
Made into batts or used in screed
or timber floor and ceiling
constructions. Sustainable/
renewable, with variable embodied
energy; recyclable biodegradable
K-value: 0.042–0.050W/mK.
Renewable resource from largely
sustainably managed cork forests
(harvesting the outer bark of cork
oak), may contain recycled cork.
Commonly used as underlay
under hardwood and ceramic
floors
K-value: 0.080W/mK. The rigid
insulation has a higher (worse) Uvalue than the batt form. Works
due to sealed air cells within the
fabric. Fire-resistant and uses no
glue (formed under high pressure).
Recyclable, renewable,
biodegradable in landfill, nonhazardous
Strawboard
Hemcrete
K-value: 0.101W/mK. Recycled,
recyclable, renewable agricultural
waste – 100 per cent straw.
Produces its own binding resin.
Biodegradable
K-value: 0.12–0.13W/mK.
Comprises hemp shiv with a lime
matrix. High elasticity and vapour
permeability. Long-lasting, flexible,
low embodied energy. Easy to
install
Material
science
Modern
technology
LU2
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Thorpe D. Sustainable home refurbishment. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
Organic materials
High performance insulation materials – thermal properties of materials
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Materials for improving energy efficiency
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU2
LU3
Mineral wool batts and rolls
Foamed glass slab
Perlite
K-value: 0.033–0.040W/mK. Made
of steel slag (over 75 %) with
basalt rock (25 % or less). Used
for loft and cavity wall insulation –
blown in through a hose. Fireproof,
recyclable, long-lasting, rotresistant. Non-renewable, non-biodegradable, highly reliant on fossil
fuels
K-value: 0.042W/mK. Contains tiny
sealed cells formed by reacting
finely-ground oxidized glass (up to
60 % recycled) with carbon at high
temperature. High, durable
compressive strength, nonpermeable, high thermal mass,
inherently resistant to fire and air
movement. Re-usable
K-value: 0.045–0.05W/mK.
Naturally occurring volcanic glass
that greatly expands and becomes
porous when heated sufficiently.
Loose-fill, granular, light weight.
To fill concrete block cores, or
mixed with cement to create a
lighter, less heat-conductive
concrete. Non-renewable, mined
Fibreglass mineral wool batts and rolls
Aerogel
K-value: 0.033–0.040W/mK. Made from molten
glass, sometimes with 20 to 30 % recycled
content. The most common residential insulant.
Usually applied as batts, pressed between
studs. Non-renewable, durable and rot-proof,
non-flammable, except for the facing, nonbiodegradable, reclaimable, not recyclable. Risks
of cancer and breathing problems from
exposure to glass fibres
K-value: 0.013W/mK. Aerogel has given rise to highly
expensive new products such as flexible sheets and laminates,
a type of glass and composite materials including plasterboard
and sandwiched within PVC panels. Uneconomic but useful
where width is limited as performance is so good. Made by
extracting water from silica gel, replacing it in nano-sized pores
with a gas such as carbon dioxide to comprise 99 per cent of
volume. Stable and rigid, durable and rot-proof, impermeable
to water-vapour, non-combustible, reclaimable. non-renewable
and non-bio-degradable
Natural minerals
Applied from: Thorpe D. Sustainable home refurbishment. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
High performance insulation materials – thermal properties of materials
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Materials for improving energy efficiency
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU2
LU3
Phenolic foam board
Expanded polystyrene board
Extruded polystyrene board
K-value: 0.020–0.25W/mK. Closed
cell phenolic foam is designed for
roofing, cavity board, external wall
board, plaster board dry linings
systems, floor insulation and as
sarking board
(EPS) K-value: 0.032–0.040W/mK .
Thermoplastic, melts if heated (for
moulding or extrusion). Expanded
into foam using heat. They are
used primarily in masonry cavities.
Can be recovered for re-use.
Boards not recommended for
older, breathable constructions
(XPS) K-value: 0.028–0.036W/mK.
Uniform closed-cell structure,
smooth continuous skin. Some
products use recycled polystyrene.
Very high compressive strength
Eco-wool – batts
Structural Insulated Panels
K-value: 0.039–0.042W/mK.
Recycled alternative to glass wool.
Comes in rolls or slabs of varying
thicknesses. Suitable for loft and
stud walls. Easy to install,
reclaimable/recyclable, stable,
durable, non-toxic. impermeable to
watervapour. non-biodegradable
K-value: variable approximately
0.040W/mK. A building method
using pre-cut EPS or XPS to erect
an airtight structure quickly that
eliminates thermal bridging. For
renovation work they may be used
for building extensions or new
walls or even external insulation.
Many different applications
Polyurethane board and foam
K-value: 0.02–0.033W/mK. Foam
or rigid board. Foam is sprayed in
at high temperatures. Stable,
durable, ideal for plugging gaps or
leaks. Any thickness can be
achieved. Hydrophobic
Fossil carbon
Applied from: Thorpe D. Sustainable home refurbishment. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
High performance insulation materials – thermal properties of materials
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Materials for improving energy efficiency
LU2
LU3
Introduction
PCMs can be organic, paraffin or
nonparaffin based, inorganic like salt
hydrate or metallics, or inorganic
eutectics when PCMs are composed
of two or more components which
freeze and melt in a congruent
manner
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
PCMs can store a significant amount
of thermal energy at daytime while
melting, thus reducing the indoor air
temperature swings produced by
solar and internal gains
Modern
technology
At night, thermal energy is released
and the material can restore its solid
state; this stage can be enhanced
by ventilating the building with fresh
outdoor air
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Phase change materials - PCM
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Materials for improving energy efficiency
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU2
Passive PCM systems
Active PCM systems
Passive use of PCM - to decrease
the operation energy of the
building by decreasing the
energy demand of space heating
and cooling, basically smoothing
the indoor temperature by
increasing the energy inertia of
the building envelope
Active systems using PCM - to
decrease the operational energy
of the building by decreasing the
use of fossil fuels in heating,
cooling and domestic hot-water
production
PCM wallboards is used to
improve the thermal comfort of
lightweight buildings, since they
are very suitable for the
incorporation of PCM
In solar water heating systems,
the use of PCM can be an
advantage since the volume of
the necessary water storage tank
can be decreased
LU3
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Phase change materials – building refurbishment
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 2: Materials for improving energy efficiency
Characteristics
Introduction
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU3
Syntetic materials
Energy used in
manufacture
Low, in solid materials energy is used
in processing
Usually high
Added chemicals
Glues with low impact are added
Some products contain toxic glues or other
chamical agents (e.g. formaldehyde)
Robustness
Some insulations are highly robust
Some products are very robust
Ability to handle
moisture
Some insulations are able to handle
moisture very well
Most insulations are unable to absorb
moisture
Moisture buffering
Many insulations can help to regulate
humidity
Most materials do not regulate humidity
Breathability
Most materials are breathable and
moisture permeable
Most materials are not breathable
Indoor air quality (IAQ)
Most insulations help with good IAQ
Neutral or negative on IAQ
Recycling
Some include recycled and waste
materials
Some materials are based on recycled
resourses
End-of-life disposal &
pollution
Natural materials can decay back into
the earth
Can be classified as hazardous waste
Ozone depletion
No or low negative effect
Many products use chemical blowing agents
Thermal mass
Most materials contain varying levels
of thermal mass improving thermal
performance
Most materials do not contribute to thermal
mass
Durability
Most materials are durable
Many materials are not durable
Renewable vs. non-renewable materials
Building
refurbishment
Natural renewables
LU2
Applied from: Woolley T. Low impact building. Housing using renewable materials. Oxford UK: John Wiley & Sons; 2013
Materials for energy efficiency in buildings
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Module 3: Material science
Learning Unit 2: Materials for improving energy efficiency
LU1
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Criteria for selection of materials
Building
refurbishment
How does the material affect health and the ecosystem,
and how does it affect resource use
Assessment
& evaluation
How does the environmental damage? Regarding health,
it is the emissions and chemical ingredients that are
decisive. Regarding resource use, environmental profiles
produced using lifecycle analysis can be examined
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Bokalders V, Block M. The whole building handbook. How to design healthy, efficient and sustainable buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
Materials skills for building refurbishment
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
Introduction
LU2
LU3
The refurbishment of the opaque elements of existing
buildings means using thermal insulation materials
Building
refurbishment
Main solutions for thermal insulation
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Refurbishment levels, to enhance the energy saving
external insulation
Level 1
existing level/insulation condition
internal insulation
Level 2
standard refurbishment measures
air layer insulation
Level 3
advanced refurbishment measures
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Magrini A. Building refurbishment for energy performance. A global approach. Dordrecht CH: Springer International Publishing; 2014
Opaque building envelope
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
LU2
LU3
Main Parameters for the Thermal Characterization of Walls
Introduction
Evaluation of U [W/(m2 K)]
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Calculation
EN ISO 6946:2008
Material
science
In situ measurement
Definition of wall layers
Modern
technology
Project
information
Heat flux meter
analysis (ISO 9869)
Comparison with
wall catalogue
Endoscopy
Renewable
energy
Wall U-value definition
Cost control
Applied from: Magrini A. Building refurbishment for energy performance. A global approach. Dordrecht CH: Springer International Publishing; 2014
Opaque building envelope – thermal transmittance
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
Introduction
LU3
Vapour transmission problems
Building
refurbishment
The moisture problems affect building
structures are various:
Assessment
& evaluation
Side effects resulting from interstitial condensation
produce degradation of buildings and unhealthy
environments in the following forms:
capillary rise of water in the walls
condensation inside building components
migration of salts, efflorescence
problems with tightness to rainwater
dimensional changes and damage of artefacts
salts migration inside materials
Material
science
reduction in the thermal insulation
hygrometric surface problems
degradation of plaster
water vapour condensation inside structures
decay of wooden structures
Modern
technology
the presence of condensed water on the surface
and inside of the walls
growth of fungal colonies on the inner surface
of the building envelope
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU2
Applied from: Magrini A. Building refurbishment for energy performance. A global approach. Dordrecht CH: Springer International Publishing; 2014
Opaque building envelope – vapour transmission problems
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
LU2
LU3
Thermal transmittance conditions and improvement actions
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Radiation
Low-e coatings
Conduction
Assessment
& evaluation
Special gas fills
Multiple cavities
Convection
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Low
conductance
spacers
Better frames
Conduction
Windows are the most energytransmissive elements in the
envelope with U-value at least
five times greater than typical
insulated opaque elements
Windows transmit around
400W/m2, 40 times greater
than a 20°C temperature
difference across a wall with a
Uvalue of 0.5W/m2
Thermal transmittance of a
window (UW) is defined by 3
components: the glass panes,
the frame (fixed or operable),
and the spacer between panes
(multiglazed windows)
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Transparent building envelope – thermal transmittance
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
LU2
LU3
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
the introduction of coating
film over the glass panes
with a consequent
emissivity reduction (lowemission glazing)
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
the application of gas layer
with a thermal conductivity
lower than the air conductivity
(for instance, argon and
krypton gases)
Solutions
used
for the
reduction
in conductive
and
convective
heat transfer
the addition of interspaces
splitting with multiglazing
systems
Modern
technology
the adoption of spacers with
low thermal conductivity
material components
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Baker NV. The handbook of sustainable refurbishment. Non-domestic buildings. London UK: Earthscan; 2009
Transparent building envelope – solutions
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
Introduction
LU2
LU3
The effectiveness of sun protection of glass surfaces depends on the following factors:
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
characteristics of the screen
materials and finishing
(reflectance)
solar shading solution
(fixed or mobile)
screen positioning with
respect to the frame (external,
internal, intermediate)
screen disposition, according
to the façade exposition
(parallel, orthogonal,
horizontal, vertical, etc.)
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Magrini A. Building refurbishment for energy performance. A global approach. Dordrecht CH: Springer International Publishing; 2014
Shading devices
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
Introduction
Fixed shading examples
LU2
LU3
Mobile shading examples
Building
refurbishment
Roller
blinds
Assessment
& evaluation
Fixed
overhang
Material
science
Modern
technology
Venetian
blinds
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Fixed
blades
Applied from: Magrini A. Building refurbishment for energy performance. A global approach. Dordrecht CH: Springer International Publishing; 2014
Shading devices – classification of shielding products
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
Introduction
Roller blinds examples
LU2
LU3
Curtains examples
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Roller
curtain
Drop-arm
awning
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Sliding
arm
awning
Tent
canopy
Applied from: Magrini A. Building refurbishment for energy performance. A global approach. Dordrecht CH: Springer International Publishing; 2014
Shading devices – classification of shielding products
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
LU2
LU3
How to Choose a Solar Shading Device
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
solar gain
reduction
in summer
summer thermal
comfort
improvement by
controlling the
phenomena of
radiative heat
exchange
Assessment
& evaluation
Functional
benefits
that should
be
evaluated
Material
science
visual
comfort by
controlling
glare effects
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
thermal
resistance
improvement
in the
combination
frame/screen
thermal
winter solar
gains
In case of historic buildings it is crucial to evaluate the aesthetic value of facades
before choosing appropriate shading device (external, internal, intermediate)
Applied from: Magrini A. Building refurbishment for energy performance. A global approach. Dordrecht CH: Springer International Publishing; 2014
Shading devices – classification of shielding products
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
Introduction
LU3
Silica aerogels is a highly porous nanostructured and light
material, with a very low thermal conductivity (down to 0.010
W/m K). Granular translucent and transparent monolithic silica
aerogels were developed as insulation materials for windows
Building
refurbishment
Types of aerogels
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
1
2
opaque aerogels, could be
used to reduce thermal
bridges in the building
envelope, or additives for
high thermal performance
coatings. The thermal
conductivity is about 0.013
W/m K
transparent aerogels, such
as monolithic aerogels for
superinsulating windows
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU2
3
Buildings dated before
1970 usually do not have
very large windows, but
their performance in terms
of thermal insulation is
generally very poor
translucent granular silica
aerogels (often called
nanogel), used to realize
highly energy-efficient
windows and skylights. Uvalues can be lower than
0.3 W/m2 K
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Windows: nanogel & energy efficient
1
2
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Module 3: Material science
LU1
Learning Unit 3: Systems & devices
LU3
Commercially available glazing systems
Introduction
2
1
tensile structures and
roofing
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
polycarbonate systems for
skylights and façades
3
insulated glass
units
Material
science
Modern
technology
4
5
structural composite panels for skylights
and façades
U-channel glass (self-supporting systems
of glass channels with an extruded metal
perimeter frame)
Renewable
energy
Cost control
LU2
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Windows: nanogel & energy efficient
1
2
3
4
5
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7
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9
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Module 4:Modern technology
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Learning objectives. To give:
1. basic knowledge on modern technologies used in
energy efficient buildings;
2. knowledge on thermal energy storage technologies;
3. information about low energy cooling systems;
4. knowledge on HVAC systems in energy efficient
buildings;
5. information about energy efficient lighting;
6. knowledge on switchable glazing technology.
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Back
Next
Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
Thermal energy can
be stored as part of
the building
structures as well as
in a separate
enclosure, which
purely depends on
the method of
cooling/heating being
provided in the
existing building
envelope
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Passive Thermal
Storage
using some part of the building mass
(block walls, block partitions,
concrete floors, and concrete roof
decks) to store heating or to store
cooling capacity
Active Thermal
Storage
takes place when a material is
specifically cooled or heated, with the
object of using the cooling or heating
effect at a later time
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Thermal energy storage (TES) technologies
1
2
3
4
5
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7
8
9
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11
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Passive Solar Heating Storage
Active Solar Heating Storage
The passive heating using the solar
energy is a type of thermal storage
technique highly suitable for
buildings that are being refurbished
The active solar heating storage utilizes a
dedicated solar collector, storage tank,
heat exchanger, associated mechanical
pumps and control interfaces.The solar
radiation being trapped by the solar
collector gets converted to heat energy
Passive solar heating storage
systems can enhance energy
efficiency of buildings
by 30–35 %
The temperature of heat transfer
fluid is expected to elevate up by
130–140◦C
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Thermal energy storage (TES) technologies – Solar heating storage
1
2
3
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5
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7
8
9
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11
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
Summer
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
The aquifer thermal energy
storage (ATES) system basically
works on the principle of
extracting the enthalpy of
thermal energy from the lowtemperature groundwater to
cater the cooling or heating load
demand in buildings.
Room heat exchanger
Material
science
Heat exchanger
Modern
technology
50-200
Renewable
energy
Aquifer
Earth
Cost control
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Thermal energy storage (TES) technologies – Aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES)
1
2
3
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7
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9
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11
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
Winter
Building
refurbishment
Three types of ATES systems
capable of storing heat or cold
depending on the thermal load
demand in buildings
Assessment
& evaluation
Room heat exchanger
Material
science
1. single (mono)-source,
2. double-source (doublet)
3. recirculation (year-round)
Heat exchanger
Modern
technology
50-200
Renewable
energy
Aquifer
Earth
Cost control
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Thermal energy storage (TES) technologies – Aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
Summer
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
The borehole thermal energy
storage (BTES) systems are
similar to the ATES systems
in operational characteristics
Room heat exchanger
Material
science
Heat exchanger
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Earth
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Thermal energy storage (TES) technologies – Borehole thermal energy storage (BTES)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
Winter
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
The BTES system utilizes the
low-temperature source from
the underground for
effectively catering the
cooling and heating
requirements in buildings
Room heat exchanger
Material
science
Heat exchanger
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Earth
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Thermal energy storage (TES) technologies – Borehole thermal energy storage (BTES)
1
2
3
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7
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9
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
Radiant cooling systems utilize chilled water pipes to distribute cooling energy to
various conditioned spaces
Building
refurbishment
Type of radiant cooling systems
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Panel system
Capillary tube system
Aluminum panels that carry tubing can
be surface mounted or embedded on
floors, walls, or ceilings. Thermal mass
of a heated floor acting as heat
storage medium. Heat is conducted
from the heating sources to the panel
surfaces. By radiation, the surfaces
directly heat objects without heattransferring media (such as air)
Capillary tube systems are used to
provide chilled water through mats of
small, closely spaced tubes that are
embedded in plastic, gypsum, or
plaster on walls and ceilings.
Concrete layers with embedded tubes
can provide the conduit and thermal
storage capacity for cooling systems
Applied from: Krarti M. Weatherization and energy efficiency improvement for existing homes. An engineering approach. Boca Raton FL: CRC Press; 2012
Low energy cooling systems – Radiant cooling systems
1
2
3
4
5
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7
8
9
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
The ASHRAE design
recommendations
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
ASHRAE recommendation
1
Room temperature
18 - 22⁰C
2
Supplied hot water temperature
35 - 60⁰C
3
Floor surface temperature
24 - 30⁰C
Material
science
4
Drop in water temperature
8 - 11⁰C
5
Maximum length of loop
60m (3/8 in.), 90m (1/2 in.)
Modern
technology
6
Tube size
3/8 in.
7
Tube spacing
10 – 23 cm
Assessment
& evaluation
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Krarti M. Weatherization and energy efficiency improvement for existing homes. An engineering approach. Boca Raton FL: CRC Press; 2012
Low energy cooling systems – Radiant cooling systems
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Classification of Heating and Cooling Systems
Introduction
Function
Building
refurbishment
Heating only
Cooling only
Heating &
cooling
Forced air systems
Furnaced with
ducted air orductfree air
DX air
conditioning;
evaporative
cooling
Air heat pumps
Hydronic systems
Boilers and
baseboard
radiators; radiant
floors
Radiant celling
Radiant walls
Modern
technology
Passive/renewable
systems
Direct gain systems;
trombe walls
Earth air
tunnels; natural
ventilation
Ground source
heat pumps
Renewable
energy
Others
Electric heaters;
wood stoves
Absorption
cooling
Thermoactive
foundations
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning (HVAC)
Cost control
Applied from: Haines RW, Myers ME. HVAC systems design handbook. New York NY: McGraw Hill; 2004
HVAC systems in energy efficient buildings
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
Criteria for System and Equipment Selection
Building
refurbishment
Criteria for HVAC System and equipment
selection
1 Demands of comfort or process
Assessment
& evaluation
2 Energy conservation, code requirements
3 First costs vs. Life-cycle cost
Material
science
4 Desires of owner, architect or design office
5 Space limitation
Modern
technology
6 Maintainability and reliability
Renewable
energy
8 Simplicity and controllability
Cost control
7 Central system or distributed system
Applied from: Haines RW, Myers ME. HVAC systems design handbook. New York NY: McGraw Hill; 2004
HVAC systems in energy efficient buildings
1
2
3
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5
6
7
8
9
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
1
Building
refurbishment
3
The building has no heating or cooling
system. Energy is used only for systems such
as lighting, appliances, and DHW. This case
was considered as a reference to assess the
level of thermal discomfort within the
building if no heating and cooling systems
are installed
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
2
Renewable
energy
Radiative walls
Radiative walls are used to heat and cool
the apartment unit. Three thermostats per
unit are used to avoid significant
temperature stratification. To operate the
system, operative temperature control is
used
Natural ventilation
4
The building is cooled using natural
ventilation. No mechanical system is used for
heating or cooling. Natural ventilation is
considered by opening windows only when
outside air temperature is lower than 23°C
and indoor and outdoor temperature
difference is 1°C over the indoor temperature
Modern
technology
Cost control
No HVAC system
Earth tube
This option utilizes the heating/cooling
energy stored within the ground medium. In
this building, an earth tube is used to
condition air supplied to each apartment unit
in the building
Applied from: Krarti M. Weatherization and energy efficiency improvement for existing homes. An engineering approach. Boca Raton FL: CRC Press; 2012
Comparative analysis of heating & cooling systems – types of HVAC systems
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
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9
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11
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
5
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Radiative wall with cooling tower
This system is a variation of system 4 with
an open type cooling tower (condenser) loop
directly connected to the radiative wall
system loop to reduce cooling energy
consumption
6
Radiative wall with evaporative
cooler
This system is also a variation of system 4
with an evaporative cooler used to cool the
water supplied to the radiant walls
7
Radiative floors
Instead of the radiative walls, radiative floors
are utilized to provide both heating and
cooling throughout each apartment unit of
the building. A radiative floor per floor level
for each unit is considered
8
Heating with radiative floor and
cooling with radiative wall
This system used two separate water loops:
hot water loop to provide heating through
the radiative floors as in system 8, and
chilled water loop to provide cooling through
radiative walls as in system 3
Applied from: Krarti M. Weatherization and energy efficiency improvement for existing homes. An engineering approach. Boca Raton FL: CRC Press; 2012
Comparative analysis of heating & cooling systems – types of HVAC systems
12
13
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Module 4: Modern technology
Learning Unit : Modern technology systems & devices
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Energy-Efficient Lighting Systems
Lighting controls
High-efficiency fluorescent lamps
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Compact fluorescent lamps
Compact halogen lamps
LED lighting
Organic Light-Emitting Diodes
Automatically turning off the lights in spaces that are not
occupied and can detect motion for spaces of up to 60 m2 ,
can save up to 60% of energy use
Occupancy or Vacancy Sensors
Photosensor-Based Controls
Timers and motion detection can save 20% of energy use
associated with outdoor lighting
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Dimming Switches can save up to 50% of the electrical
lighting energy use
Applied from: Thorpe D. Sustainable home refurbishment. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
Energy efficient lighting
12
13
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Learning objectives. To give:
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
1. knowledge on small scale renewable energy systems and devices
used in buildings;
2. knowledge and information about solar photovoltaic devices and
systems, solar thermal devices and systems, wind energy for
homes, heating pumps, micro CHP power generation, design
principles for RES installations.
Cost control
Back
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Renewable
energy
technology
Assessment
& evaluation
Solar thermal (tube)
Upgrading domestic hot water system
Installation may be integrated with roof
refurbishment-close to cost effective
Solar thermal (flat
plate)
Low temperature applications
Even unglazed flat-plate collector can be
effective for low temperature application
Material
science
Photovoltaic
Re-cladding panels and roof tiles
Photovoltaic/thermal
Re-cladding with air-cooled PV panels
Electricity generation and ventilation pre-heating.
Cooled panels work at higher efficiency
Modern
technology
Photovoltaic
Opaque PV used as shading devices
Geometry for optimum collection and shading
tends to coincide
Photovoltaic
Semi-transparent PV used for reduced
transmission glazing panels in large
spaces (atria)
Not optimum shading since PV is about 85%
absorber and re-radiates absorbed energy
inwards
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Application
Comments
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Renewable energy options
1
2
3
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9
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Renewable energy
technology
Application
Comments
Biomass heating
System requires space for fuel delivery and
storage; waste materials storage/disposal
(ashes)
Local emission regulations need consulting
Ground source heating
Uses a heat pump
Operates at low temperaturerequiring an appropriate
delivery sysytem, underfloor heating
Material
science
Ground source cooling
Uses a heat pump
Increasing efficiency of refrigeration due to lower
temperature cold sink. Displaces electricity. Often used
in conjunction with heating
Modern
technology
Solar thermal (cladding
collector)
Re-cladding in conjuction with external
insulation
Heated air collected between lightweight absorber
and external insulation
Solar thermal (tube)
Contributing to space heating in buildings with
low heat demand and integrated storage
system
Installation may be integrated with roof refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Renewable energy options
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Suitability of renewable energy sources
Assessment
& evaluation
Application
Solar
thermal
Solid
biomass
Biomass
from
waste
Biogas
Shallow
geothermal
Deep
geothermal
Dwellings
Material
science
District
heating
Commerce
& service
Modern
technology
Agriculture
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Industry
Applied from: Ziębik A, Hoinka K. Energy systems of complex buildings. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Renewable energy options
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
Typical grid connected PV system for a house
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Most PV systems installed for
residential buildings are used to
generate electricity that can be
either used directly in the house
(stand-alone systems) or sold to
the grid (grid-connected systems)
Inverter
PV
panel
Sockets
Material
science
Panel
board
Room
Modern
technology
Utility
power
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Recently, there is an interest in
using hybrid PV systems to
generate both electricity
and heat through
photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T)
collectors
Bathroom
Meter
Applied from: Krarti M. Weatherization and energy efficiency improvement for existing homes. An engineering approach. Boca Raton FL: CRC Press; 2012
Solar photovoltaic devices & systems
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
Fully filled solar thermal system
Building
refurbishment
Roof
Assessment
& evaluation
Solar collector
Material
science
Hot water store
Modern
technology
Expansion
vessel
Pump
Renewable
energy
Cost control
The flat type, which is the most
common and the most economic, is
formed by a radiation collection plate,
by one or more glass coverings, in
order to reduce thermal loss
externally, as well as a system of
channels connected to the plate
through which a thermo-vector fluid
flows to remove power
Check
valve
Applied from: Thorpe D. Sustainable home refurbishment. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
Solar thermal devices & systems
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
Drainback solar thermal system
Building
refurbishment
The energy performance of a system
is influenced chiefly by:
Roof
Assessment
& evaluation
-
Drainback
vessel
Material
science
-
Solar collector
-
Hot water store
Modern
technology
Pump
the amount of solar radiation
hitting the collectors;
the collector type (panels or
evacuated tubes);
their efficiency;
the orientation (azimuth);
the slope;
the end-use water temperature
and volume required
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Thorpe D. Sustainable home refurbishment. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
Solar thermal devices & systems
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Solar domestic hot water system (SDHW)
Introduction
Hot Out
Drainback
tank
Building
refurbishment
T
Solar
preheat
tank
Solar
collector
Assessment
& evaluation
Heat
exchanger
Controller
Auxiliary
tank
T
Material
science
Pump
Pump
Cold In
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Laughton Ch. Solar domestic water heating. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
Solar thermal devices & systems
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Solar domestic hot water system (SDHW)
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
SDHW systems are divided into two
primary categories: direct and indirect.
In direct or open-loop systems, water
is directly heated through the solar
collectors
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Drainback systems are examples of indirect and active
SDHW. The main feature of a drainback system is the
fail-safe setup used to ensure that the collector loop
system, including the collector and the pipes, would
not freeze by removing water from the loop when the
system is not collecting solar heat
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
SDHW systems can use passive (i.e.,
natural convection) or active
strategies (i.e., pump) to circulate
water from the collector to the tank
Applied from: Laughton Ch. Solar domestic water heating. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
Solar thermal devices & systems
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
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11
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
Solar integrated roofing systems
Building
refurbishment
Photovoltaic
panels
Roof duct
Heat collection/
glass panels
For greater heating
season collection, the
angle should be the
altitude + 15° (more
vertical) and for cooling
season collection
altitude – 15°. These
angles are general for
early design
development and should
be refined through a
more rigorous analysis
to determine the
optimum tilt angle
Heat collection/
sheet-metal
roofing
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Roof air flow
channel
Air inlet
Applied from: Hall MR. Materials for energy efficiency and thermal comfort in buildings. Cambridge UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd; 2010
Solar thermal devices & systems
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Solar water heating system – sequence of functional groups
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Solar radiation
External solar
collector
Assessment
& evaluation
Cold water supply
Pipes
Material
science
Electricity for pumps
and controls
Water storage tank
of solar heat
Controls for safety,
efficiency and
information
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Domestic hot water
distribution system
Back-up heating
Applied from: Laughton Ch. Solar domestic water heating. London UK: Earthscan; 2010
Solar thermal devices & systems
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
DarrieusRotor
‘Small’ means wind machines
that are scaled from a few Watts
to 20 kW. Machines between 1 and 5
kW may be used to provide either
direct current or alternating current
S-Rotor
Material
science
Vertical versions operate at lower wind
speeds and they are less stressed
mechanically by turbulence. They can
be sited on roofs or walls
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Spiral
Flugel
rotor
Applied from: Smith PF. Eco-refurbishment. A guide to saving and producing energy in the home. Oxford UK: Architectural Press; 2004
Wind energy for homes
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Systems under 2 kW usually have a
24–48 V capacity aimed at battery
charging or a DC circuit rather than
having grid compatibility
Assessment
& evaluation
Lange
turbine
HDarrieusRotor
Material
science
Because of high turbulence caused by
buildings, vertical axis machines are
better than horizontal versions
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
‘Aeolian’ roof devised by Altechnica. Wind turbine shown is
Altechnica Wheel Darrieus cross flow wind turbine
Cost control
Applied from: Smith PF. Eco-refurbishment. A guide to saving and producing energy in the home. Oxford UK: Architectural Press; 2004
Wind energy for homes
12
13
14
15
16
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18
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Geothermal systems
Introduction
Heat exchange loops
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Vertical
Material
science
Heat exchange loops
A typical GSHP system
uses only electricity to
power a pump and can
be as much as 300 to
400% more energy
efficient than a highly
efficient furnace
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Horizontal
Applied from: Langnish O, Seyboth K. Paris FE: International Energy Agency; 2007
Heating pumps
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Geothermal systems
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Ground-water
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Two wells
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Thermoactive foundations
offer a distinct
advantage over
conventional borehole
systems
Since concrete has a
higher thermal
conductivity than soil,
thermoactive foundation
systems are typically
more energy efficient
than the conventional
geothermal heating
pumps
Applied from: Langnish O, Seyboth K. Paris FE: International Energy Agency; 2007
Heating pumps
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Diagram of a micro-CHP system
Introduction
Waste heat
Building
refurbishment
Reject heat
Prime
mover
Assessment
& evaluation
Absorption
chiller
Heat
exchanger
Desiccant
device
Heat
exchanger
Building
cooling
Building
heating
Building
humidity
control
Hot water
Generator
Material
science
Electrical
power
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Combined heat and power generation, or cogeneration, is a well established concept dating back
to the 1880s when steam was a primary source of energy in industry and electricity was beginning
to be used for both power and lighting
Applied from: Chamra LM, Mago PJ. Micro-CHP power generation for residential and small commercial buildings. New York NY: Nova Science Pub; 2009
Micro CHP power generation
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
CHP base technologies
Introduction
CHP base technologies
CHP power
generation
technology
Power range (applied
to CHP)
Power
efficiency
range (%)
CHP
efficiency
(peak) (%)
CCGT (Combined
Cycle Gas & Steam
turbines)
20MW – 600 MW
30 - 55
85
Gas turbine
2 MW – 500 MW
20 - 45
80
500 kW – 100 MW
15 – 40
75
5 kW – 10 MW
25 - 40
95
30 kW – 250 kW
25 - 30
75
Fuel cell
5 kW – 1 MW
30 - 40
75
Stirling engine
1 kW – 50 kW
10 - 25
80
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Steam turbine
Reciprocating engine
Modern
technology
Micro-turbine
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Beith R. Small and micro combined heat and power (CHP) systems. Cambridge UK: Woodhead Publishing Ltd.; 2011
Micro CHP power generation
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
Renewable energy production options
Building
refurbishment
INPUT
Assessment
& evaluation
OUTPUT
Renewable energy
source
Energy conversion
system
Direct useful heat
Electricity generation or
other energy carrier
Material
science
Useful heat from CHP
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Langnish O, Seyboth K. Paris FE: International Energy Agency; 2007
Design principles for RES installations
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Module 5: Renewable energy systems
Learning Unit: Application of RES in building retrofitting
Introduction
i
Building
refurbishment
To use renewable heat most efficiently from a
quality perspective it is possible to set up a
merit order of preference, although this may
often differ from an economic point of view
Assessment
& evaluation
1. Energy efficiency and conservation options in
buildings and industry sectors.
2. Passive solar heating building designs.
3. Solar thermal or geothermal where sufficient
resources exist.
4. Geothermal heat pumps where possible,
powered by renewable electricity.
5. Biomass in integrated bioenergy systems for
cogeneration of electricity and heat
6. Biomass combustion, incineration and
anaerobic digestion with the biogas used for
heat only production
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Heating
i
Cooling
Based on similar considerations the following
merit order of preferred cooling technologies
emerges
1. Energy efficiency and conservation options
in buildings
2. Passive cooling options, summer night
ventilation without the need for auxiliary
energy.
3. Passive cooling options using auxiliary
energy, e.g. cooling towers, desiccant
cooling, aquifers.
4. Solar-assisted, CSP or shallow geothermal all
driving active cooling systems.
5. Biomass integrated systems to produce cold
6. Active compression cooling and refrigeration
powered by renewable electricity
Applied from: Langnish O, Seyboth K. Paris FE: International Energy Agency; 2007
Design principles for RES installations
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Module 6: Cost control
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Learning objectives. To give:
1. knowledge on costs planning and risk
management for building renovation projects;
2. knowledge on uncertainty in refurbishment
investment, costs of green buildings, financial
benefits of green buildings, costs optimization.
Renewable
energy
Cost control
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Module 6: Cost control
Learning Unit: Uncertainties in investment, costs of green building, costs optimization
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
The reduction in energy costs depends
on two highly uncertain inputs such as
the fluctuating energy costs and
forecasting building performance
Assessment
& evaluation
NZER buildings are exposed to
uncertainties in costs and benefits
throughout their life cycle. Thus, a life
cycle perspective is appropriate to
identify and classify the uncertainties
that characterize NZER during the
design, construction, operation, and
maintenance phases of the building
Material
science
Modern
technology
Uncertainties are classified into two
categories
Internal
External
Internal
uncertainties are
internal to the
NZER project and
are within the
control/decision of
the building
stakeholders
External
uncertainties are
those beyond the
control of the
building
stakeholders
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Uncertainties & risk management
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Module 6: Cost control
Learning Unit: Uncertainties in investment, costs of green building, costs optimization
Life Cycle Uncertainties:
Introduction
Construction phase uncertainties
Building
refurbishment
Design phase uncertainties
Assessment
& evaluation
-
forecasting weather
conditions
predicting energy savimgs
predicting equipment
performance and costs
offsite generation prices of
renewable energy
predicting occupancy
energy use characteristics
fluctuating energy costs
availability of space
-
Material
science
-
Modern
technology
-
Renewable
energy
Cost control
-
scheduling uncertainties
budget and financing decisions
preexisting conditions
material functional characteristics
integration of new and old building
systems
Operation and maintenance phase
uncertainties
-
actual benefits of the refurbishment
non-energy cost savings or benefits
whole building performance
revenue from building operation
operation and maintenance costs
performance of renewable energy
systems
future demand and supply of energy
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Uncertainties & risk management
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Module 6: Cost control
Learning Unit: Uncertainties in investment, costs of green building, costs optimization
Introduction
risk management
elements that underpin
the business case of
investing in sustainable
refurbishment of
commercial buildings:
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
• reducing potential
risks to future income
flow, depreciation and
liquidity;
• reducing risks to
future funding and
financing;
• reducing risks with
regard to changing
occupier behaviour;
• reducing risks
resulting from a future
legislative
environment
NZER risk
management
process
Identify and
classify
uncertainties and
risks
Evaluate risks and
uncertainties
Use proper
management tools
Initiate risk
management
process
Accept
or
manage
risk
Manage
Review risk
Accept
NZER risk
management process
Monitor risk
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Uncertainties & risk management
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Module 6: Cost control
Learning Unit: Uncertainties in investment, costs of green building, costs optimization
Costs
Introduction
Building
refurbishment
the costs of a remedial action at a time t (months or years): they
comprise initial investment costs and annual costs, including running
costs, periodic or replacement costs for repair or change of components
and systems:
Assessment
& evaluation
running costs comprise maintenance costs, operational costs, energy
costs and added costs
maintenance costs are annual costs for preserving and/or restoring the
desired quality of the installation
Material
science
energy costs are annual costs for energy and include all the charges
listed in the energy bills
Modern
technology
The reuse of the majority of an existing building’s fabric and an
improvement to the building’s services and performance may result in
the reduction of the overall environmental impact when compared
to a new build
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Costs of green buildings
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Module 6: Cost control
Learning Unit: Uncertainties in investment, costs of green building, costs optimization
Value based decision
Introduction
The reuse of an existing asset
Building
refurbishment
A better balance of risk and return
Quick delivery back to market (or refurbish whilst in use). Depending on the level of
refurbishment, it is approximately 15–70 per cent quicker than new build
Assessment
& evaluation
Maximisation of the value of an existing asset. With refurbishment, the developer is in the
position where the unique style and character of an older building can be retained
Refurbishment
enables a
developer to
achieve the
following:
Material
science
Operational savings whilst re-energising the asset
Creation of an opportunity to support new ways of working
Modern
technology
Potential reduction of the carbon footprint of an existing building
Refurbishment can avoid the reconstruction of major structural elements and still retain the
benefit of the creation and provision of new office space. Depending on the level of
refurbishment, the cost of the refurbishment is approximately 10–75 % less than new build
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Burton S. Sustainable retrofitting of commercial buildings. Cool climates. Oxon UK: Routlege; 2015
Costs of green buildings
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Module 6: Cost control
Learning Unit: Uncertainties in investment, costs of green building, costs optimization
Strategic value to NZER (Nearly Zero Energy Refurbishment)
Introduction
Definitions
Building
refurbishment
Option to stage
The refurbishment project is divided into stages. At the end of each completed
stage, the costs/benefits are evaluated to determine whether subsequent stages
can be pursued or not
Option to abandon
Terminate the refurbishment before completion and dedicate resources to other
projects
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Option to defer
Postpone the refurbishment without jeopardizing the potential benefits
Option to grow
Provides an initial baseline that allows the stakeholder to pursue follow-on
opportunities
Option to reduce
Reduce the magnitude of the refurbishment and save costs
Option to switch
Developed assets can be switched or redeployed to serve another purpose
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Costs optimization – options category
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Module 6: Cost control
Learning Unit: Uncertainties in investment, costs of green building, costs optimization
Strategic value to NZER (Nearly Zero Energy Refurbishment)
Introduction
Application to investments in NZER
Building
refurbishment
Assessment
& evaluation
Material
science
Option to stage
The refurbishment is divided into stages depending on available budget. First
stage might involve installation of PV systems to achieve energy balance. And
the second stage could involve major renovations of HVAC equipment
Option to abandon
An exhaustive feasibility study of the existing building condition might indicate
that the associated incremental costs to NZER are too high. The building
stakeholders might abandon the project
Option to defer
The decision to invest in NZER can be deferred until debt financing becomes
available at attractive rates to the owner, or until the tenants can arrange to
lease alternative space for the duration of the refurbishment project
Option to grow
The owner of can decide to invest in one NZER as a pilot project and decide to
expand refurbishment work to the remaining of his/her existing building stock
once perceived benefits from NZER the pilot project outweigh the costs incurred
Option to reduce
Reduce the scope of the NZER endeavor when the costs of the refurbishment
exceed the allocated budget. Other scheduled energy-efficient replacements or
updates for the building will need to be postponed or forgone all together
Option to switch
Stakeholders of a commercial building might decide to switch the tenant
occupancy of certain floors from three to four tenants per floor to only one tenant
per floor to be able to satisfy the market needs
Modern
technology
Renewable
energy
Cost control
Applied from: Torgal FP, at al. Near zero energy building refurbishment. London UK: Springer-Verlag; 2013
Costs optimization – options category
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Renovation of Old & Historic Buildings
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