Transcript pericardial cavity - Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1 Anatomy &
Physiology 1
Kathleen Cercone PT, PhD
Martini Textbook
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Dr. C.
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1-2 Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy
– Describes the structures of the body
• What they are made of
• Where they are located
• Associated structures
• Physiology
– Is the study of:
• Functions of anatomical structures
• Individual and cooperative functions
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1-3 Relationships between
Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy
– Gross anatomy, or macroscopic anatomy,
examines large, visible structures
• Surface anatomy: exterior features
• Regional anatomy: body areas and how structures work
together in an area such as the forearm
• Systemic anatomy: organ systems
• Clinical anatomy: medical specialties
• Developmental anatomy: from conception to death
• Pathophysiology (disease)
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1-3 Relationships between
Anatomy and Physiology
• Physiology
– Cell physiology: processes within and between
cells
– Organ physiology: functions of specific organs
– Systemic physiology: functions of an organ system
– Pathological physiology: effects of diseases
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Levels of Organization
•
Smallest to largest:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Atoms
Molecules
Macromolecules
Organelles
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Systems
Organism
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How would you
order these?
osteocyte
calcium
femur
bone tissue
skeleton
Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 1 of 4).
Cellular Level
Chemical Level
Protein filaments
Atoms in combination
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Complex protein molecule
Heart muscle
cell
Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 2 of 4).
Tissue Level
Cardiac muscle
tissue
Organ Level
The heart
The
cardiovascular
system
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Organ system
level
Organism
level
Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 3 of 4).
THE ORGAN SYSTEMS
Integumentary
Major Organs
• Skin
• Hair
• Sweat glands
• Nails
Functions
• Protects against
environmental
hazards
• Helps regulate
body temperature
• Provides sensory
information
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Skeletal
Major Organs
• Bones
• Cartilages
• Associated
ligaments
• Bone marrow
Functions
• Provides support
and protection for
other tissues
• Stores calcium and
other minerals
• Forms blood cells
Muscular
Major Organs
• Skeletal muscles
and associated
tendons
Functions
• Provides
movement
• Provides protection
and support for
other tissues
• Generates heat that
maintains body
temperature
Nervous
Major Organs
• Brain
• Spinal cord
• Peripheral nerves
• Sense organs
Functions
• Directs immediate
responses to
stimuli
• Coordinates or
moderates
activities of other
organ systems
• Provides and
interprets sensory
information about
external conditions
Endocrine
Major Organs
• Pituitary gland
• Thyroid gland
• Pancreas
• Adrenal glands
• Gonads
• Endocrine tissues in
other systems
Functions
• Directs long-term
changes in the
activities of other
organ systems
• Adjusts metabolic
activity and energy
use by the body
• Controls many
structural and
functional changes
during development
Cardiovascular
Major Organs
• Heart
• Blood
• Blood vessels
Functions
• Distributes blood
cells, water and
dissolved
materials
including
nutrients, waste
products,
oxygen, and
carbon dioxide
• Distributes heat
and assists in
control of body
temperature
Figure 1-1 Levels of Organization (Part 4 of 4) .
Lymphatic
Major Organs
• Spleen
• Thymus
• Lymphatic
vessels
• Lymph nodes
• Tonsils
Functions
• Defends against
infection and
disease
• Returns tissue
fluids to the
bloodstream
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Respiratory
Major Organs
• Nasal cavities
• Sinuses
• Larynx
• Trachea
• Bronchi
• Lungs
• Alveoli
Functions
• Delivers air to
alveoli (sites in
lungs where gas
exchange occurs)
• Provides oxygen to
bloodstream
• Removes carbon
dioxide from
bloodstream
• Produces sounds
for communication
Digestive
Major Organs
• Teeth
• Tongue
• Pharynx
• Esophagus
• Stomach
• Small intestine
• Large intestine
• Liver
• Gallbladder
• Pancreas
Functions
• Processes and
digests food
• Absorbs and
conserves water
• Absorbs nutrients
• Stores energy
reserves
Urinary
Major Organs
• Kidneys
• Ureters
• Urinary bladder
• Urethra
Functions
• Excretes waste
products from the
blood
• Controls water
balance by
regulating volume
of urine produced
• Stores urine prior
to voluntary
elimination
• Regulates blood
ion concentrations
and pH
Male Reproductive Female Reproductive
Major Organs
• Testes
• Epididymides
• Ductus deferentia
• Seminal vesicles
• Prostate gland
• Penis
• Scrotum
Major Organs
• Ovaries
• Uterine tubes
• Uterus
• Vagina
• Labia
• Clitoris
• Mammary glands
Functions
• Produces male sex
cells (sperm),
seminal fluids, and
hormones
• Sexual intercourse
Functions
• Produces female
sex cells (oocytes)
and hormones
• Supports developing embryo from
conception to
delivery
• Provides milk to
nourish newborn
infant
• Sexual intercourse
1-5 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis is a key concept in biology and life.
– The concept of homeostasis is the description for when the
internal conditions of living organisms remain stable
(within a normal range), regardless of what is going on in
the external environment.
– Homeostasis is the process used by the body to maintain a
stable internal environment.
– What happens with disease in relation to homeostasis?
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Homeostasis
• Components of a homeostatic mechanism
• Receptor (sensor) – sensitive to environmental change
• Control center (integration center) – processes
information from the receptor and sends out commands
• Set point (desired value) – in the control center
• Effector – responds to commands opposing stimulus
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HOMEOSTASIS
Normal
condition
restored
Normal
condition
disturbed
Normal room
temperature
RESPONSE:
STIMULUS:
Room temperature
drops
Room temperature
rises
EFFECTOR
RECEPTOR
Air conditioner
turns on
Thermometer
An example of
Homeostasis and
Negative Feedback
in our homes
CONTROL CENTER
(Thermostat)
Sends
commands
to
Information
affects
Features of homeostatic control mechanisms, as shown for the
maintenance of room temperature
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The setting on a thermostat establishes
the set point, or desired value, which
in this case is the temperature you
select. (In our example, the set point is
22°C, or about 72°F.) The function of the
thermostat is to keep room temperature
within acceptable limits, usually within a
degree or so of the set point.
HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis
restored
EFFECTORS
Increased activity in the
control center targets two
effectors: (1) smooth muscle
in the walls of blood vessels
supplying the skin and
(2) sweat glands. The smooth
muscle relaxes and the blood
vessels dilate, increasing
blood flow through vessels
near the body surface; the
sweat glands accelerate their
secretion. The skin then acts
like a radiator by losing heat
to the environment, and the
evaporation of sweat speeds
the process.
At normal body temperature
(set point: 37°C or 98.6°F),
the temperature control
center is relatively inactive;
superficial blood flow and
sweat gland activity are
at normal levels.
Homeostasis and body temperature
Homeostasis
disturbed
RECEPTORS
If body temperature rises
above 37.2°C (99°F), two
sets of temperature
receptors, one in the skin
and the other within the
brain, send signals to the
homeostatic control center.
CONTROL CENTER
The temperature control
center receives information
from the two sets of
temperature receptors and
sends commands to the
effectors.
The homeostatic control of body temperature, which involves a
negative feedback loop
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Start
Figure 1.7
1
Negative Feedback in Thermoregulation
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1-6 Negative Feedback
• The Role of Negative Feedback
– The response of the effector negates the stimulus
– Body is brought back into homeostasis
• Normal range is achieved
• When negative feedback occurs, the body senses that
a certain level is too high or too low and acts so the
level moves in the opposite direction
• If you remember it goes in the opposite direction you
will know what feedback it is
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• Positive feedback
– Initial stimulus produces a response that
exaggerates or enhances the change in the original
conditions
– Typically occurs when a potentially dangerous or
stressful process must be completed quickly
• Example: clotting mechanism
• Positive Feedback is the control mechanism in
which the adjustment is made to “exaggerate
and accelerate” the original change
– Speed up the adjustment
– Rare- only a few examples
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Figure 1-4 Positive Feedback: Blood Clotting.
Clotting
accelerates
Positive
feedback
loop
Chemicals
Damaged cells in the blood
vessel wall release chemicals that begin the clotting
process.
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The chemicals start chain
reactions in which cells,
cell fragments, and soluble
proteins in the blood begin
to form a clot.
Chemicals
Blood clot
As clotting continues, each
step releases chemicals
that further accelerate the
process.
This escalating process
is a positive feedback
loop that ends with the
formation of a blood clot,
which patches the vessel
wall and stops the bleeding.
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Table 1-1 The Roles of Organ Systems in Homeostatic Regulation.
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This is NOT lectured on at all. You will do this material in lab.
I have worksheets for lab. The lab book will be used in this
lab as well.
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Anatomical Terms
• Landmarks around the body create a map for
orientation
• Based on Latin or Greek words used by
ancient anatomists
• Many terms also were initially named after the
discoverer or the most famous victim
(diseases)
• Most eponyms have been replaced by more
precise terms
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Anatomical Landmarks (Surface Anatomy)
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1-7 Anatomical Terminology
• Superficial Anatomy
– Locating structures on or near the body surface
• Anatomical Landmarks
– Anatomical position: hands at sides, palms
forward
– Supine: lying down, face up
– Prone: lying down, face down
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Figure 1-7 Directional References.
Superior: Above; at a higher level (in the human body, toward the head)
Right
Superior
The head is superior to the knee.
Cranial or Cephalic
Toward the head
Left
The cranial, or cephalic, border of
the pelvis is superior to the thigh.
Proximal
Toward an
attached base
The shoulder is
proximal to the
wrist.
Lateral
Medial
Away
from the
midline
Toward
the
midline
Posterior or Dorsal
Anterior or Ventral
Posterior: The back
surface
Anterior: The front
surface
Ventral: The belly
side. (equivalent to
anterior when
referring to the human
body)
The umbilicus (navel)
is on the
anterior (or ventral)
surface of the trunk.
Dorsal: The back.
(equivalent to posterior
when referring to the
human body)
The scapula (shoulder
blade) is located
posterior
to the rib cage.
Proximal
Caudal
Distal
Toward the tail;
(coccyx in
humans)
The hips are
caudal to the
waist.
Away from an
attached base
The fingers are
distal to the
wrist.
OTHER DIRECTIONAL TERMS
Superficial
Distal
At, near, or relatively close
to the body surface
The skin is superficial to
underlying structures.
Deep
Toward the interior of the
body; farther from the surface
a Anterior view
Inferior: Below; at a lower level; toward the feet
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The bone of the thigh is deep
to the surrounding skeletal
muscles.
The knee is inferior to the hip.
b Lateral view
Inferior
Figure 1-8 Sectional Planes.
Sagittal plane
Frontal or coronal
plane
Plane is oriented parallel to
long axis
Plane is oriented
parallel to long axis
A sagittal section separates
right and left portions. You
examine a sagittal section,
but you section sagittally.
A frontal, or coronal,
section separates
anterior and
posterior portions of
the body. Coronal
usually refers to
sections passing
through the skull.
In a midsagittal section, the
plane passes through the
midline. It separates the
body into equal right and
left sides.
Directional term:
frontally or coronally
Midsagittal plane
A parasagittal section
misses the midline. It
separates the body into
unequal right and left sides.
Directional term: sagittally
Transverse, or
horizontal, plane
Plane is oriented
perpendicular to long axis
Frontal plane
Transverse plane
(inferior view)
Oblique
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A transverse, or cross,
section separates
superior and inferior
portions of the body.
Directional term:
transversely or horizontally
Frontal plane
Sagittal plane
Transverse plane
The major sectional planes
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Anatomical Frames of Reference
body cavity – a fluid-filled internal
chamber between the organs (viscera)
and body wall
•
•
•
provides cushioning
permits change in size/shape (e.g GI
tract)
prevents friction
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Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).
Frontal or
forehead
Nasal or nose
Ocular, orbital
or eye
Cranial
or skull
Cephalic or head
Facial
or face
Oral or mouth
Mental or chin
Buccal or cheek
Cervical or neck
Thoracic or
thorax, chest
Axillary or armpit
Mammary
or breast
Brachial
or arm
Abdominal
(abdomen)
Umbilical
or navel
Antecubital
or front of
elbow
a Anterior view
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Otic or ear
Trunk
Figure 1-5a Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).
Antebrachial
or forearm
Pelvic
(pelvis)
Trunk
Carpal or wrist
Palmar or palm
Manual
or hand
Digits
Pollex
or thumb (phalanges)
or fingers (digital
or phalangeal)
Inguinal
or groin
Pubic
(pubis)
Patellar
or kneecap
Femoral
or thigh
Crural
or leg
Tarsal or
ankle
Digits (phalanges)
or toes (digital or
phalangeal)
Hallux or
great toe
Pedal
or foot
a Anterior view
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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 1 of 2).
Cephalic
or head
Acromial or
shoulder
Dorsal or
back
Cervical
or neck
Olecranal
or back
of elbow
Upper
limb
b Posterior view
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Figure 1-5b Anatomical Landmarks (Part 2 of 2).
Lumbar
or loin
Upper
limb
Gluteal
or buttock
Lower
limb
Popliteal or
back of knee
Sural
or calf
Calcaneal or
heal of foot
Plantar or
sole of foot
b Posterior view
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Body Cavities
Dorsal = back side
Ventral = front side
Thoracic = chest (heart, trachea, lungs..)
Abdomen = stomach area (spleen, intestines)
Pelvic = lower abdomen (bladder, reproductive organs)
DIAPHRAGM: Separates the thoracic and pelvic region
SEROUS MEMBRANE - covers and surrounds organs
SEROUS FLUID - lubricates organs
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Superficial and regional anatomy
• Abdominopelvic quadrants
• Imaginary perpendicular lines that intersect at navel
• Used by clinicians to determine possible cause of
patient pains, aches, or injuries
• Abdominopelvic regions
• Nine regions
• Preferred by anatomists
• Describe the precise location and orientation of
internal organs
4 quadrants – for clinical description
9 regions – for anatomical description
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Figure 1-6a Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Right Upper
Quadrant
(RUQ)
Left Upper
Quadrant
(LUQ)
Right Lower
Quadrant
(RLQ)
Left Lower
Quadrant
(LLQ)
a Abdominopelvic quadrants. The four
abdominopelvic quadrants are formed by two
perpendicular lines that intersect at the navel. The
terms for these quadrants, or their abbreviations, are
most often used in clinical discussions.
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Figure 1-6b Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Right
hypochondriac
region
Right lumbar
region
Right
inguinal
region
Epigastric
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Umbilical
region
Left lumbar
region
Hypogastric
(pubic)
region
Left inguinal
region
b Abdominopelvic regions. The nine abdominopelvic
regions provide more precise regional descriptions.
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Figure 1-6c Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions.
Liver
Gallbladder
Stomach
Spleen
Large intestine
Small intestine
Appendix
Urinary
bladder
c Anatomical relationships. The relationship between
the abdominopelvic quadrants and regions and the
locations of the internal organs are shown here.
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1-8 Body Cavities
• Serous Membranes – Line body cavities and cover organs
– Secretes fluid into body cavities (lubrication)
– Consist of parietal layer and visceral layer
• Parietal layer — lines inner surface of body way
• Visceral layer — covers surface of organ (viscera
always means “organ”)
• A layer of serous fluid is found inbetween
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• Serous Membrane - two layered,
covers organs
o Outer layer = parietal
o Inner layer = visceral (lines the
organs)
• Serous fluid – lubricating fluid
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Figure 1-9b Relationships among the Subdivisions of the Body Cavities of the Trunk.
Visceral
pericardium
Heart
Pericardial
cavity
Air space
Balloon
Parietal
pericardium
b The heart projects into the pericardial cavity like a fist pushed
into a balloon. The attachment site, corresponding to the wrist
of the hand, lies at the connection between the heart and
major blood vessels. The width of the pericardial cavity is
exaggerated here; normally the visceral and parietal layers
are separated only by a thin layer of pericardial fluid.
Your organs move with your body, and this makes serous
Membranes very important.
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Thoracic and Abdominopelvic
Membranes
Thoracic Cavity
Pericardial
Cavity
Abdominopelvic
Cavity
Visceral Pleura
Visceral
Pericardium
Visceral
Peritoneum
Pleural Cavity
Pericardial Cavity
Peritoneal Cavity
Parietal Pleura
Parietal
Pericardium
Parietal Peritoneum
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1-8 Body Cavities
• The Thoracic Cavity: superior to diaphragm;
enclosed in the ribcage (anterior)
– Right and left pleural cavities
• Contain right and left lungs ( have serous membranes)
– Mediastinum
• Upper portion filled with blood vessels, trachea,
esophagus, and thymus
• Lower portion contains pericardial cavity
– The heart is located within the pericardial cavity- serous
membranes
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Body cavities
• Viscera
• Internal organs partially or totally enclosed by body
cavities
• Connected to rest of body
• Example: pericardial cavity
• Pericardium (peri-, around + cardium, heart)
• Delicate serous membrane lining the pericardial
cavity
• Secretes watery fluid that keeps surfaces moist and
reduces friction
• Permits heart to change size and shape when beating
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THORACIC CAVITY
Each lung is enclosed within a pleural cavity, lined
by a shiny, slippery serous membrane called the
pleura (PLOO-ra).
Heart in
pericardial
cavity
Right lung
in right
pleural cavity
Left lung
in left
pleural cavity
The body cavities:
the thoracic cavity and the abdominopelvic cavity
BODY CAVITIES
A horizontal section through the
thoracic cavity shows the relationship
between the subdivisions of the
ventral body cavity in this region.
The pericardial cavity is embedded within the
mediastinum, a mass of connective tissue that
separates the two pleural cavities and stabilizes the
positions of embedded organs and blood vessels.
ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY
THORACIC CAVITY
The diaphragm,
a muscular sheet,
separates the thoracic
cavity from the
abdominopelvic
cavity.
ABDOMINOPELVIC
CAVITY
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During development, the
portion of the original ventral
body cavity extending into
the abdominopelvic cavity
remains intact as the
peritoneal (per-i-tō-NĒ-al)
cavity, a chamber lined by
a serous membrane known
as the peritoneum
(per-i-tō-NĒ-um). A few
organs, such as the kidneys
and pancreas, lie between
the peritoneal lining and the
muscular wall of the
abdominal cavity. Those
organs are said to be
retroperitoneal (re-trōper-i-tō-NĒ-al; retro, behind).
Note the
orientation of
the section.
Unless otherwise
noted, all cross
sections are
shown as if the
viewer were
standing at the
feet of a supine
person and
looking toward
the head.
Diaphragm
Peritoneum (red)
showing the boundaries
of the peritoneal cavity
The abdominal cavity
contains many digestive
glands and organs
Retroperitoneal area
The pelvic cavity contains
the urinary bladder,
reproductive organs, and
the last portion of the
digestive tract; many of
these structures lie
posterior to, or inferior to,
the peritoneal cavity.
1-8 Body Cavities
• The Abdominopelvic Cavity
– Abdominal cavity — superior portion
• Diaphragm to top of pelvic bones
• Contains digestive organs
• Retroperitoneal space
– Area posterior to peritoneum and anterior to muscular body
wall
– Contains pancreas, kidneys, ureters, and parts of the digestive
tract
– Pelvic cavity — inferior portion
• Within pelvic bones
• Contains reproductive organs, rectum, and bladder
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Terms you need to know:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Superior (cranial)
Inferior (caudal)
Ventral (anterior)
Dorsal (posterior)
Medial
Lateral
Intermediate
Proximal
Distal
Superficial (external)
Deep (internal)
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• Axial
• Appendicular
• Saggital plane
– Midsaggital/median
– Parasaggital
• Frontal (coronal) plane
• Transverse (horizontal)
plane
• Oblique section