Transcript Anatomy

Major Themes of Anatomy & Physiology
Anatomical Terminology
I. A & P Overview
A. Anatomy – Latin “to cut up” – the study of the
structures of the body and their relationship to
one another.
– Gross or macroscopic anatomy – the study of large
structures without the aid of a microscope (can be
seen with the naked eye).
• Systemic anatomy – the study of the body by
systems.
• Regional anatomy – the study of structures in a
specific given area.
• Surface anatomy – study of internal body
structures as related to the overlying skin.
– Microscopic anatomy – study of structures too
small to see without a microscope.
• Cytology – the study of cells
• Histology – the study of tissues
– Developmental anatomy – the study that traces
structural changes in an individual from
conception to old age.
• Embryology- study of the developmental
changes in an organism from conception to
birth
B. Physiology – the study of the functioning of the
body and its structures – “how the body
structures work” – emphasizing the maintenance
of constant conditions (homeostasis).
• Consider the operations of particular systems:
–Renal physiology – kidney
–Neurophysiology – brain
–Cardiovascular physiology – heart
C. Principle of Complementarity – the structure
is built for a specific function – “Structure is
for function”.
– Anatomy and physiology should be mentioned
together because the structure reflects the
function and vice versa
Examples
• Teeth – humans vs. a cat – canine teeth are different
because they have different needs functions
Histology example
SIMPLE
CILIATED
COLUMNAR
EPITHELIAL
cilia
HISTOLOGY- PRINCIPLE OF COMPLEMENTARITY
GOBLET CELLS IN TISSUE SECRETE MUCUS
CILIATED TO MOVE MUCUS AND FILTER PARTICLES
II. Structure – Levels of Organization
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Atoms compose molecules
Molecules compose macromolecules
Macromolecules compose organelles
Organelles compose cells
Cells compose tissues
Tissues compose organs
Organs compose organ systems
Organ systems compose the
organism
• Levels of Organization
• Atom  molecules  macromolecules 
organelles  cell  tissue  organ  organ
system  organism
• Organ systems – 11 in the human body (see
overview in textbook)
• You need to be familiar with all of these
definitions from Biology.
SUPPORT AND MOVEMEMENT
• Integumentary system
• Skeletal system
• Muscular system
COMMUNICATION AND CONTROL
• Nervous system
• Endocrine system
REGULATION & MAINTENANCE
• Cardiovascular system
• Digestive system
• Respiratory system
• Urinary system
• Lymphatic system
CONTINUITY OF LIFE
• Reproductive system –
male
female
III. Important Scientists
A. Aristotle – he was the first to record attempts at
studying anatomy by dissecting plants and animals –
no humans.
B. Hippocrates – considered the father of medicine,
interested in medical ethics. “Hippocratic Oath” - he
did not dissect humans.
C. Claudius Galen – wrote an anatomical text used for
1400 years. His work is based on different animals:
oxen, swine, dogs, apes, doctor to Roman gladiators
D. Andreas Vesalius – known as “The Father of Modern
Anatomy”. He wrote the first human anatomy text
book, “On the Structure of the Human Body”.
E. William Harvey- focused on the role of the path of
blood through the heart and circulatory pathways
ANDREAS
VESALIUS
“FATHER OF
MODERN
ANATOMY”
Gross anatomy. This famous woodcut of a gross dissection appeared in the world's fist anatomy
textbook, De Corporis Humani Fabrica (On the Structure of the Human Body) in 1543. This
woodcut features the book's author, Andreas Vesalius, who is considered to be the founder of
modern anatomy. The body being dissected is called a cadaver
IV. Language of Anatomy
A. Anatomical position – this is our set
reference point for anatomy.
• Standing erect, feet on floor
• Arms at side, palms forward, thumb (pollex) is
lateral
• Head and feet pointed forward.
B. Planes of the Body
B. Planes of the body
• Frontal or coronal – divides into a front
(anterior) and a back (posterior)
• Sagittal – right and left halves.
– Mid-sagittal – equal right and left halves.
– Parasagittal – unequal right and left halves.
• Transverse – horizontal (across), top (superior)
and bottom (inferior) halves. “Cross section”
= transverse.
Sagittal Plane
Frontal (coronal) Plane
Transverse Plane
C. Directional Terms
• Superior – up towards head / Inferior – down towards
feet
• Anterior - towards front (ventral) / Posterior – towards
back (dorsal)
• Superficial – close to surface / Deep – further from
surface
• Proximal – closer to the point of attachment / Distal –
further away from the point of attachment (when
referring to limbs)
• Medial – closer to the midline / lateral – away from the
midline
This is another example of a body regions picture, make sure
that you know all the structures on page 13 in your textbook.
D. BODY CAVITIES
Dorsal Cavity
(Back)
Cranial
Cavity
Ventral Cavity (Belly
– Side)
Spinal
Cavity
Thoracic
Cavity
Pleural
Cavity
Left
Right
Mediastinum
Superior
Abdominopelvic
Cavity
Abdominal
Pericardial
Pelvic
Body Cavities
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This handout is will reviewed in the anatomical terms video
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E. Body Membranes
• Body Membranes – thin filmy membrane that
lines body cavities and walls or cover an
organ.
– Parietal membrane – covers or lines the body wall
– Visceral membrane – covers or lines each organ
Examples- parietal pleural lines the pleural wall of
the thoracic cavity
visceral pleural lines the lobes of the lungs
V. Homeostasis
A. Overview1. Claude Bernard – French physiologist
noticed that body cells survived in a constant
environment. (Internal conditions should
remain constant.)
2. Walter Cannon – American physiologist in 1932
came up with the term “ homeostasis”.
• Homeostasis – Latin for “the process of
standing the same” –the ability for an
organism to maintain internal conditions
despite external changes. (everything
regulatory in the body exists to maintain
internal stability)
3. Homeostatic control mechanisms
– Feedback control loops – an integrated control
network to accomplish self regulation
(involuntarily)
• Examples: Body temperature, blood pressure,
heart rate, oxygen and carbon dioxide levels,
thirst, pulse rate, glucose/insulin levels
B. Basic components of feed back loop; pg. 9
• Sensory mechanism – afferent – caries forward
• Control center – brain
• Effector – causes an effect or efferent – carry
away from
• Feedback – our check (set point), it will
continue until a set point is met
Mechanical
example of
feedback
loop
Physiological example
of negative feedback
loop
Negative feedback
Blood pressure
Glucose regulation
C. Feedback loops
– Two types of feed back loops
• Negative feed back mechanism
Inhibitory – it opposes a change by
creating an opposite response.
• Example: If cold, heat kicks on (see mechanical ex)
–It produces a change that is opposite to the
disturbance
–Stabilizes physiological imbalance
–Responsible for internal stability
–Most common- bp, body temp.,
insulin/glucose
Negative Feedback, Set Point
• Room temperature does not stay at set point of
68 degrees -- it only averages 68 degrees
Physiological example
of negative feedback
loop
Body Temperature homeostasis
Body temperature increases
Hypothalamus detects change and causes:
1. increases sweating
2. dilation of skin and blood vessels
3. sweat gland activation
Sweating and blood flow cause heat loss
Body temperature returns toward normal range
Body temperature decreases
Hypothalamus detects change and causes:
1. decreased sweating
2. constriction of skin and blood vessels
3. shivering
Decreased sweating and skin blood flow help
retain heat
Shivering produces heat
Body temperature returns toward normal
• Positive feedback mechanism
–Stimulatory response
–Does not help the body to maintain stability
–Accelerates a disturbance – “snowball effect”
–Very rare under normal conditions
–Necessary mechanism; example: sneezing,
labor contractions, blood clot (wound healing)
• Rare; example: prolonged high fever, certain cancers
Positive Feedback Loops
Oxytocin
regulation
2. Nerve impulses from cervix
transmit information to brain
Positive Feedback-Fever
• If temperature
rises
above 108 F
– metabolic rate
increases causing
body to produce
heat faster still
• Temperature
increases & cycle
repeats again
• Fatal at 113 F
• Feed forward mechanism – in digestive system
– triggers other mechanisms to start working
for digestion.
CYTOLOGY/HISTOLOGY
• Review animal cell structures, cell (plasma)
membrane, cell connections
• Review cell physiology (passive and active
transport)
• Cell shapes- see handout
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SQUAMOUS
SQUAMOUS
CUBOIDAL
COLUMNAR
STELLATE
SPHEROID
DISCOID
FUSIFORM
FIBROUS
VI. GERM LAYERS
VI. Embryonic Germ Layers
A. Formation of primary germ layers
– Early part of first trimester of development. Three
different layers of specialized cells that form
primitive germ layers (germ as is germination or to
grow)
• Ectoderm – outer germ layer that forms peripheral
structures. Ex. Epidermis, tooth enamel, cornea, lens,
most of the nervous system (brain and spinal cord).
• Mesoderm – middle germ layer forms what is in
middle. Ex. Dermis, skeletal bones, muscle, cardio
• Endoderm – inner germ layer. Ex. lining of tracts,
glands, “gut” – digestive organs, respiratory organs,
urinary organs.