Transcript Ch9.Joints.Lecture_1

Joints & Joint Movements
Human Anatomy
Sonya Schuh-Huerta, Ph.D.
Joints
• Rigid elements of the skeleton meet at
joints or articulations
• Greek root “arthro” means joint
• Structure of joints
– Enables resistance to
crushing, tearing, &
other forces
Classifications of Joints
• Joints can be classified by function or
structure
• Functional classification  based on
amount of movement
– Synarthroses  immovable; common in
axial skeleton
– Amphiarthroses  slightly movable;
common in axial skeleton
– Diarthroses  freely movable; common in
appendicular skeleton (all synovial joints)
Classifications of Joints
• Structural classification based on
– Material that binds bones together
– Presence or absence of a joint cavity
– Structural classifications include:
• Fibrous
• Cartilaginous
• Synovial
Classifications of Joints
Sutures – A Type of Fibrous Joint
• Bones are tightly bound by a minimal
amount of fibrous tissue
• Only occur between the bones of the skull
• Allow bone growth so the skull can expand
with brain during childhood
• Fibrous tissue ossifies in middle age
– Synostoses = closed sutures
Syndesmoses – A Type of Fibrous Joint
• Bones are connected exclusively by
ligaments
• Amount of movement depends on length
of fibers
– Tibiofibular joint = immovable synarthrosis
– Interosseous membrane between radius &
ulna = freely movable diarthrosis
Gomphoses – A Type of Fibrous Joint
• Tooth in a socket
• Connecting ligament  the periodontal
ligament
Fibrous Joints
(a) Suture
(b) Syndesmosis
(c) Gomphosis
Joint held together with very
short, interconnecting fibers,
and bone edges interlock.
Found only in the skull.
Joint held together by a
ligament. Fibrous tissue can
vary in length but is longer
than in sutures.
Peg-in-socket fibrous joint.
Periodontal ligament holds
tooth in socket.
Suture
line
Fibula
Tibia
Socket
of
alveolar
process
Root of
tooth
Dense
fibrous
connective
tissue
Ligament
Periodontal
ligament
Cartilaginous Joints
• Bones are united by cartilage
• Lack a joint cavity
• 2 types
– Synchondroses
– Symphyses
Synchondroses
• Hyaline cartilage unites bones
– Epiphyseal plates
– Joint between first rib & manubrium
(a) Synchondroses
Bones united by hyaline cartilage
Sternum
(manubrium)
Epiphyseal
plate (temporary
hyaline cartilage
joint)
Joint between
first rib and
sternum
(immovable)
Symphyses
• Fibrocartilage unites bones; resists
tension & compression
• Slightly movable joints that provide
strength with flexibility
– Intervertebral discs
– Pubic symphysis
• Hyaline cartilage  present as articular
cartilage
Symphyses
(b) Symphyses
Bones united by fibrocartilage
Body of vertebra
Fibrocartilaginous
intervertebral
disc
Hyaline cartilage
Pubic symphysis
Synovial Joints
• Most movable type of joint!!!
• All are diarthroses  what does that mean?
• Each contains a fluid-filled joint cavity
General Structure of Synovial
Joints
• Articular cartilage
– Ends of opposing bones are covered with
hyaline cartilage
– Absorbs compression
• Joint cavity (= synovial cavity)
– Unique to synovial joints
– Cavity is a potential space that holds a small
amount of synovial fluid
General Structure of Synovial
Joints
• Articular capsule  joint cavity is
enclosed in a 2-layered capsule
– Fibrous capsule  dense irregular
connective tissue, which strengthens joint
– Synovial membrane  loose connective
tissue
• Lines joint capsule & covers internal joint surfaces
• Makes synovial fluid
General Structure of Synovial
Joints
• Synovial fluid
– A viscous fluid similar to raw egg white
• A filtrate of blood
– Arises from capillaries in synovial membrane
• Contains glycoprotein molecules secreted by
fibroblasts
General Structure of Synovial
Joints
• Reinforcing ligaments
– Often are thickened parts of the fibrous
capsule
– Sometimes are extracapsular ligaments 
located outside the capsule
– Sometimes are intracapsular ligaments 
located internal to the capsule
General Structure of Synovial Joints
Ligament
Joint cavity (contains
synovial fluid)
Articular (hyaline)
cartilage
Fibrous
Articular
capsule
capsule
Synovial
membrane
Periosteum
(a) A typical synovial joint
General Structure of Synovial
Joints
• Richly supplied with sensory nerves
– Detect pain
– Most monitor how much the capsule is being
stretched
General Structure of Synovial
Joints
• Have a rich blood supply
– Most supply the synovial membrane
– Extensive capillary beds produce basis of
synovial fluid
– Branches of several major nerves & blood
vessels
Synovial Joints with Articular
Discs
• Some synovial joints contain an articular
disc
– Temporomandibular joint & Knee joint
– Occur in joints whose articulating bones have
somewhat different shapes
How Synovial Joints Function
• Synovial joints  lubricating devices
• Friction could overheat & destroy joint
tissue & bone ends
• Are subjected to compressive forces
• Fluid is squeezed out as opposing cartilages touch
• Cartilages ride on the slippery film
Bursae & Tendon Sheaths
• Bursae & tendon sheaths are not
synovial joints
– Closed bags of lubricant
– Reduce friction between body elements
• Bursa = a flattened fibrous sac lined by a
synovial membrane
• Tendon sheath = an elongated bursa that
wraps around a tendon
Bursae & Tendon Sheaths
Coracoacromial
ligament
Acromion
of scapula
Coracoacromial
ligament
Subacromial
bursa
Subacromial
bursa
Joint cavity
containing
synovial fluid
Fibrous
articular
capsule
Hyaline
cartilage
Tendon
sheath
Cavity in
bursa containing
synovial fluid
Humerus resting
Bursa rolls
and lessens
friction.
Synovial
membrane
Tendon of
long head
of biceps
brachii
muscle
Fibrous
capsule
Humerus
(a) Frontal section through the right
shoulder joint
Humerus head
rolls medially as
arm abducts.
Humerus moving
(b) Enlargement of (a), showing how a bursa
eliminates friction where a ligament (or other
structure) would rub against a bone
Movements Allowed by Synovial
Joints
• 3 basic types of movement
– Gliding  one bone across the surface of
another
– Angular movement  movements change
the angle between bones
– Rotation  movement around a bone's long
axis
Gliding Joints
• Flat surfaces of two bones slip across
each other
• Gliding occurs
between:
– Carpals
– Articular
processes
of vertebrae
– Tarsals
Gliding
(a) Gliding movements at the wrist
Angular Movements
• Increase or decrease angle between
bones
• Movements involve:
– Flexion & extension
– Abduction & adduction
– Circumduction
Angular Movements
Extension
Flexion
(b) Angular movements: flexion & extension of the neck
Angular Movements
Extension
Flexion
(c) Angular movements: flexion & extension of the trunk
Angular Movements
Flexion
Extension
Flexion
Extension
(d) Angular movements: flexion & extension at the shoulder and knee
Angular Movements
Abduction
Adduction
Circumduction
(e) Angular movements: abduction, adduction, &
circumduction of the upper limb at the shoulder
PLAY
Movement of the
glenohumoral joint
Rotation
• Involves turning movement of a bone
around its long axis
• The only movement allowed between atlas
& axis vertebrae
• Occurs at the neck, shoulder, elbow, hip
Rotation
Rotation
Lateral
rotation
Medial
rotation
(f) Rotation of the head, neck, & lower limb
Special Movements
• Elevation  lifting a body part superiorly
• Depression  moving the elevated part
inferiorly
Elevation
of mandible
Depression
of mandible
Elevation
Depression
Special Movements
• Protraction  nonangular movement
anteriorly
• Retraction  nonangular movement
posteriorly
Protraction
of mandible
Protraction
Moving a body part in the
anterior direction
Retraction
of mandible
Retraction
Moving a body part in the
posterior direction
Special Movements
• Supination  forearm rotates laterally,
palm faces anteriorly
• Pronation  forearm rotates medially,
palm faces posteriorly
– Brings radius across the ulna
Special Movements
Pronation
(radius rotates
over ulna)
Pronation (P)
Rotating the forearm so the
palm faces posteriorly
Supination
(radius and ulna
are parallel)
Supination (S)
Rotating the forearm so the
palm faces anteriorly
Special Movements
• Opposition  thumb moves across the
palm to touch the tips of other fingers
Opposition
Special Movements
• Inversion & eversion
– Special movements at the foot
• Inversion  turns sole medially
• Eversion  turns sole laterally
Special Movements
Inversion
Inversion
Turning the sole of the foot
medially
Eversion
Eversion
Turning the sole of the foot
laterally
Special Movements
• Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion
– Up-and-down movements of the foot
– Dorsiflexion  lifting the foot so its superior
surface approaches the shin
– Plantar flexion  depressing the foot,
elevating the heel (ballet toe point)
Special Movements
Dorsiflexion
Plantar flexion
Dorsiflexion
Lifting the foot so its superior
surface approaches the shin
Plantar flexion
Depressing the foot
elevating the heel
PLAY
Eversion of
Ankle joint (5a)
Synovial Joints Classified by
Shape
• Plane joint
– Articular surfaces are flat planes
– Short gliding movements are allowed
• Intertarsal & intercarpal joints
• Movements are nonaxial
• Gliding does not involve rotation around any axis
Plane Joint
Nonaxial movement
Metacarpals
Carpals
(a) Plane joint
Gliding
Synovial Joints Classified by
Shape
• Hinge joints
– Cylindrical end of one bone fits into a trough
on another bone
– Angular movement is allowed in one plane
– Elbow, ankle, & joints between phalanges
– Movement is uniaxial  allows movement
around one axis only
Hinge Joint
Uniaxial movement
Humerus
Medial/
lateral
axis
Ulna
Flexion & extension
(b) Hinge joint
Synovial Joints Classified by
Shape
• Pivot joints
– Classified as uniaxial – rotating bone only
turns around its long axis
– Examples
• Proximal radioulnar joint
• Joint between atlas & axis
Pivot Joint
Vertical
axis
Ulna
Radius
(c) Pivot joint
Rotation
Synovial Joints Classified by
Shape
• Condyloid joints
– Allow moving bone to travel:
• Side to side  abduction-adduction
• Back & forth  flexion-extension
– Classified as biaxial = movement occurs
around 2 axes
– Phalanges
Condyloid Joint
Biaxial movement
Phalanges
Anterior/
posterior
axis
Medial/
lateral
axis
Metacarpals
Flexion &
extension
(d) Condyloid joint
Adduction &
abduction
Synovial Joints Classified by
Shape
• Saddle joints
– Each articular surface has concave & convex
surfaces
– Classified as biaxial joints
– 1st carpometacarpal joint is a good example
• Allows opposition of the thumb
Saddle Joint
Metacarpal 1
Medial/
lateral
axis
Trapezium
(e) Saddle joint
Anterior/
posterior
axis
Adduction and
abduction
Flexion and
extension
Synovial Joints Classified by
Shape
• Ball-and-socket joints
– Spherical head of one bone fits into round
socket of another
– Classified as multiaxial  allow movement in
all axes
• Shoulder & hip joints are examples
Ball-and-Socket Joint
Multiaxial movement
Scapula
Medial/lateral
axis
Anterior/posterior
axis
Vertical
axis
Humerus
Flexion and
extension
(f) Ball-and-socket joint
Adduction
and abduction
Rotation
PLAY
Movement of the
glenohumeral joint (a)
Factors Influencing Stability of
Synovial Joints
• Articular surfaces
– Shapes of articulating surfaces determine
movements possible
Factors Influencing Stability of
Synovial Joints
• Ligaments
– Capsules & ligaments prevent excessive
motions
– On the medial or inferior side of a joint 
prevent excessive abduction
– Lateral or superiorly located  resist
adduction
Factors Influencing Stability of
Synovial Joints
• Ligaments (cont…)
– Anterior ligaments  resist extension & lateral
rotation
– Posterior ligaments resist flexion & medial
rotation
• The more ligaments  usually the
stronger & more stable
Factors Influencing Stability of
Synovial Joints
• Muscle tone
– Helps stabilize joints by
keeping tension on tendons
– Is important in reinforcing:
• Shoulder & knee joints
• Supporting joints in arches of the foot
Selected Joints
Selected Synovial Joints
• Temporomandibular Joint
– Is a modified hinge joint
– The head of the mandible articulates with the
temporal bone
– Lateral excursion is a side-to-side movement
– 2 surfaces of the articular disc allow:
• Hinge-like movement
• Gliding of superior surface anteriorly
The Temporomandibular Joint
Mandibular fossa
Articular tubercle
Zygomatic process
Infratemporal fossa
Mandibular
fossa
Articular
capsule
External
acoustic
meatus
Articular disc
Articular
tubercle
Superior
joint
cavity
Lateral
ligament
Articular
capsule
Ramus of
mandible
Synovial
membranes
Mandibular
condyle
Inferior joint
cavity
Ramus of mandible
(a) Location of the joint in the skull
(b) Enlargement of a sagittal section through the joint
(arrows indicate movement in each part of the joint cavity)
The Temporomandibular Joint
Selected Synovial Joints
• Shoulder (= Glenohumeral) joint
– The most freely movable joint (lacks stability!)
– Articular capsule is thin & loose
– Muscle tendons contribute to joint stability
The Shoulder Joint
Acromion
of scapula
Coracoacromial
ligament
Subacromial
bursa
Fibrous
articular capsule
Glenoid labrum
Synovial cavity
of the glenoid
cavity containing
synovial fluid
Hyaline
cartilage
Tendon
sheath
Synovial membrane
Fibrous capsule
Tendon of
long head
of biceps
brachii muscle
(a) Frontal section through right shoulder joint
Humerus
The Shoulder Joint
Glenoid labrum
Synovial cavity
of the glenoid
cavity containing
synovial fluid
Hyaline
cartilage
Fibrous capsule
Humerus
(b) Cadaver photo corresponding to (a)
Glenohumeral Joint
• The rotator cuff is made up of 4 muscles
& their associated tendons
– Supraspinatus
– Infraspinatus
– Teres minor
– Subscapularis  (= SITS muscles)
• Rotator cuff injuries are common shoulder
injuries
The Shoulder Joint
Acromion
Coracoacromial
ligament
Subacromial
bursa
Coracohumeral
ligament
Greater
tubercle
of humerus
Transverse
humeral
ligament
Tendon sheath
Tendon of
long head
of biceps
brachii
muscle
(c) Anterior view of right shoulder joint capsule
Coracoid
process
Articular
capsule
reinforced by
glenohumeral
ligaments
Subscapular
bursa
Tendon of the
subscapularis
muscle
Scapula
The Shoulder Joint
Acromion
Coracoid
process
Articular
capsule
Glenoid cavity
Glenoid labrum
Tendon of long
head of biceps
brachii muscle
Glenohumeral
ligaments
Posterior
Anterior
Tendon of the
subscapularis
muscle
Scapula
(d) Lateral view of socket of right shoulder joint,
humerus removed
Acromion
(cut)
Head of
humerus
Muscle
of rotator
cuff (cut)
(e) Posterior view of an opened left shoulder joint
Glenoid
cavity of
scapula
Capsule of
shoulder
joint
(opened)
Selected Synovial Joints
• Elbow joint
– Allows flexion & extension
– The humerus’ articulation with the trochlear
notch of the ulna forms the hinge
– Tendons of biceps & triceps brachii provide
stability
The Elbow Joint
Articular
capsule
Synovial
membrane
Humerus
Synovial cavity
Articular cartilage
Fat pad
Tendon of
triceps
muscle
Bursa
Coronoid process
Tendon of
brachialis muscle
Ulna
Trochlea
Articular cartilage
of the trochlear
notch
(a) Mid-sagittal section through right elbow (lateral view)
The Elbow Joint
Humerus
Annular
ligament
Lateral
epicondyle
Radius
Articular
capsule
Radial
collateral
ligament
Olecranon
process
(b) Lateral view of right elbow joint
Ulna
The Elbow Joint
Articular
capsule
Annular
ligament
Coronoid
process
Radius
Humerus
Medial
epicondyle
Ulnar
collateral
ligament
Ulna
(d) Medial view of right elbow
Wrist Joint
• Stabilized by numerous ligaments
• Composed of radiocarpal &
intercarpal joint
– Radiocarpal joint  joint between the
radius & proximal carpals (the scaphoid &
lunate)
• Allows for flexion, extension, adduction,
abduction, & circumduction
– Intercarpal joint  joint between the
proximal & distal rows of carpals
• Allows for gliding movement
Wrist Joint
Radius
Ulna
Radiocarpal
joint
Lunate
Scaphoid
Triquetrum
Pisiform
Capitate
Trapezoid
Trapezium
Thumb
(a) Right wrist, anterior (palmar) view
Hamate
Radiocarpal
joint
Wrist Joint
Radial
collateral
ligament
Intercarpal
joint
(b) Wrist joints, coronal section
Distal
radioulnar
joint
Articular
disc
Ulnar
collateral
ligament
Palmar
radiocarpal
ligament
Wrist Joint
Radius
Ulna
Radial
collateral
ligament
Scaphoid
Intercarpal
ligaments
Lunate
Ulnar
collateral
ligament
Pisiform
Hamate
Trapezium
Capitate
(c) Ligaments of the wrist, anterior (palmar) view
Carpometacarpal
ligaments
Selected Synovial Joints
• Hip joint
– A ball-and-socket joint
– Movements occur in all axes
• Limited by ligaments & acetabulum
– Head of femur articulates with acetabulum
– Stability comes chiefly from acetabulum &
capsular ligaments
– Muscle tendons contribute somewhat to
stability
PLAY
Movement of the
hip joint
The Hip Joint
Coxal (hip) bone
Articular cartilage
Acetabular labrum
Ligament of the
head of the femur
(ligamentum teres)
Femur
Synovial cavity
Articular capsule
(a) Frontal section through the right hip joint
The Hip Joint
Iliofemoral
ligament
Ischium
Ischiofemoral
ligament
Greater
trochanter
of femur
(c) Posterior view of right hip joint, capsule in
place
Anterior inferior
iliac spine
Iliofemoral
ligament
Pubofemoral
ligament
Greater
trochanter
(d) Anterior view of right hip joint, capsule in place
Selected Synovial Joints
• Knee joint
–
–
–
–
–
–
The largest & most complex joint
Primarily acts as a hinge joint
Has some capacity for rotation when leg is flexed
Structurally considered compound & bicondyloid
2 fibrocartilage menisci occur within the joint cavity
Femoropatellar joint  shares the joint cavity
• Allows patella to glide across the distal femur
Sagittal Section of Knee Joint
Tendon of
quadriceps
femoris
Femur
Articular
capsule
Posterior
cruciate
ligament
Lateral
meniscus
Anterior
cruciate
ligament
Tibia
Suprapatellar
bursa
Patella
Subcutaneous
prepatellar bursa
Synovial cavity
Lateral meniscus
Infrapatellar
fat pad
Deep infrapatellar
bursa
Patellar ligament
(a) Sagittal section through the right knee joint
Superior View of Knee Joint
Anterior
Anterior
cruciate
ligament
Articular
cartilage on
lateral tibial
condyle
Articular
cartilage on
medial tibial
condyle
Medial
meniscus
Lateral
meniscus
Posterior
cruciate
ligament
(b) Superior view of the right tibia in the knee joint, showing
the menisci and cruciate ligaments
Anterior View of Knee
Quadriceps
femoris
muscle
Tendon of
quadriceps
femoris
muscle
Patella
Lateral
patellar
retinaculum
Fibular
collateral
ligament
Medial
patellar
retinaculum
Tibial
collateral
ligament
Patellar
ligament
Fibula
Tibia
(c) Anterior view of right knee
Knee Joint
• Ligaments of the knee joint:
– Become taut when knee is extended
– These extracapsular & capsular ligaments are:
• Fibular & tibial collateral ligaments
• Oblique popliteal ligament
• Arcuate popliteal ligament
Knee Joint
• Intracapsular ligaments
– Cruciate ligaments
• Cross each other like an “X”
– Each cruciate ligament runs from the proximal
tibia to the distal femur
• Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
• Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)
Anterior View of Flexed Knee
Fibular
collateral
ligament
Lateral
condyle
of femur
Lateral
meniscus
Posterior cruciate
ligament
Medial condyle
Tibial collateral
ligament
Anterior cruciate
ligament
Medial meniscus
Medial femoral
condyle
Anterior cruciate
ligament
Tibia
Patellar ligament
Fibula
Medial meniscus
on medial tibial
condyle
Patella
Quadriceps
tendon
(e) Anterior view of flexed knee, showing the cruciate
ligaments (articular capsule removed, and quadriceps
tendon cut and reflected distally)
Patella
(f) Photograph of an opened knee joint; view similar to (e)
Knee Joint
• Intracapsular ligaments
– Cruciate ligaments  prevent undesirable
movements at the knee
• Anterior cruciate ligament  prevents anterior
sliding of the tibia
• Posterior cruciate ligament  prevents forward
sliding of the femur or backward displacement of
the tibia
Stabilizing function of cruciate ligaments
1 During movement of the knee the anterior
2 When the knee is fully extended,
cruciate prevents anterior sliding of the tibia;
the posterior cruciate prevents posterior
sliding of the tibia.
both cruciate ligaments are taut and
the knee is locked.
Quadriceps
muscle
Femur
Anterior
cruciate
ligament
Patella
Medial
condyle
Anterior
cruciate
ligament
Posterior
cruciate
ligament
(a)
Lateral
meniscus
Posterior
cruciate
ligament
Tibia
(b)
The “Unhappy Triad”
• Lateral blows to the knee can tear:
– Tibial collateral ligament & medial meniscus
– Anterior cruciate ligament
– Are common sports injuries!
Selected Synovial Joint
• Ankle joint
– A hinge joint between:
• United distal ends of tibia & fibula
• The talus of the foot
– Allows the movements of:
• Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion only
The Ankle Joint
– Medially & laterally stabilized by ligaments
• Medial (deltoid) ligament
• Lateral ligament
– Inferior ends of tibia & fibula are joined by
ligaments
• Anterior & posterior tibiofibular ligaments
The Ankle Joint
Tibialis posterior muscle
Tibia
Calcaneal tendon
Ankle (talocrural) joint
Talocalcaneal ligament
Talus
Talonavicular joint
Cuneonavicular joint
Tarsometatarsal joint
Metatarsal bone (II)
Metatarsophalangeal
joint
Interphalangeal
joint
Calcaneus
Subtalar
joint
Navicular
bone
Intermediate
cuneiform bone
(a) Cadaver photo of ankle and foot, sagittal section
Tendon of flexor
digitorum longus
Ligaments of the Ankle Joint
Tibia
Talus
Navicular
Medial malleolus
Medial (deltoid)
ligament
Sustentaculum
tali
1st metatarsal
(b) Right ankle, medial view
Calcaneus
Ligaments of the Ankle Joint
Fibula
Anterior tibiofibular
ligament
Tibia
Posterior tibiofibular
ligament
Lateral malleolus
Lateral
ligament
Anterior talofibular
ligament
Posterior talofibular
ligament
Calcaneofibular
ligament
Calcaneus
Cuboid
(c) Right ankle, lateral view
Talus
Metatarsals
Disorders of Joints
• Structure of joints makes them prone to
traumatic stress
• Function of joints makes them subject to
friction and wear & tear
• Affected by inflammatory & degenerative
processes
Joint Injuries
• Torn cartilage  common injury to
meniscus of knee joint
• Sprains  ligaments of a reinforcing joint
are stretched or torn
• Dislocation  occurs when the bones of
a joint are forced out of alignment
Inflammatory & Degenerative
Conditions
• Bursitis  inflammation of a bursa due to
injury or friction
• Tendonitis  inflammation
of a tendon sheath
Swollen bursa
surrounding
the knee
Inflammatory & Degenerative
Conditions
• Arthritis  describes over 100 kinds of jointdamaging diseases
– Osteoarthritis  most common type of “wear
& tear” arthritis
– Rheumatoid arthritis  a chronic
inflammatory disorder
– Gouty arthritis (gout)  uric acid build-up
causes pain in joints
• Lyme disease  inflammatory disease often
resulting in joint pain
The Joints Throughout Life
• Synovial joints develop from mesenchyme
• By week 8 of fetal development, joints
resemble adult joints
– Outer region of mesenchyme becomes fibrous
joint capsule
– Inner region becomes the joint cavity
The Joints Throughout Life
• During youth  injury may tear an epiphysis off
a bone shaft; breaks near joints; dislocations
• Advancing age  osteoarthritis becomes more
common
• Exercise  helps maintain
joint health!
Keeping Your Joints Healthy
• Exercise is key –
strengthens the muscles around
the joints & stabilizes them;
decreases injuries, joint disorders,
wear-&-tear, etc.
• Also good: proper nutrition,
hydration, & vitamins/
supplements (glucosamine a good one)
The journey of a mother & daughter
Keeping Your Joints Healthy
Questions…?
What’s Next?
Lab: Finish Bones & Joints
Wed Lecture: Skeletal muscle
Wed Lab: Skeletal muscle tissue
& muscles