Transcript Ch. 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

Ch. 1:
The Human Body: An Orientation
From Essentials of Human Anatomy
& Physiology, 7th ed.
Ch. 1
The Human Body: An Orientation
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•
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Overview of Anatomy & Physiology
Levels of Structural Organization
Maintaining Life
Homeostasis
Anatomical Language
What are Anatomy & Physiology?
• Anatomy
• Physiology
– ana = apart
– tomy = to cut
– physio = nature
– ology = the study of
– study of structure &
form of body parts and
how these parts relate to
one another
– study of how the body &
its parts work or
function to sustain life
3 essential concepts of A & P
—form the bedrock of the study of the
human body
1. Complementarities of structure & function
2. Hierarchy of structural organization
3. Homeostasis
Review of Systems
• Be prepared for a QUIZ at any time after today
over the systems.
– You should be able to name all 12.
– You should be able to describe the function of
each.
– You should be able to name specific organs or
structures of each.
In your notes, list all 12 systems of the
body and a summary of each
(p. 5-6 in textbook and also in your Language of Anatomy packet)
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Integumentary
Skeletal
Muscular
Nervous
Endocrine
Cardiovascular
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lymphatic
Immune (sometimes w/ lymphatic)
Respiratory
Digestive
Urinary
Reproductive (M & F)
Organ System Overview
• Integumentary
• Forms the external
body covering
• Protects deeper tissue
from injury
• Synthesizes vitamin D
• Location of cutaneous
nerve receptors
Figure 1.2a
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Slide 1.4
Organ System Overview
• Skeletal
• Protects and supports
body organs
• Provides muscle
attachment for
movement
• Site of blood cell
formation
• Stores minerals
Figure 1.2b
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Slide 1.5
Organ System Overview
• Muscular
• Allows locomotion
• Maintains posture
• Produces heat
Figure 1.2c
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Slide 1.6
Organ System Overview
• Nervous
• Fast-acting control
system
• Responds to
internal and external
change
• Activates muscles
and glands
Figure 1.2d
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Slide 1.7
Organ System Overview
• Endocrine
• Secretes regulatory
hormones
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Metabolism
Figure 1.2e
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Slide 1.8
Organ System Overview
• Cardiovascular
• Transports materials
in body via blood
pumped by heart
• Oxygen
• Carbon dioxide
• Nutrients
• Wastes
Figure 1.2f
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Slide 1.9
Organ System Overview
• Lymphatic
• Returns fluids to blood
vessels
• Disposes of debris
• Involved in immunity
Figure 1.2g
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Slide 1.10
Organ System Overview
• Immune
• More of a functional
system instead of an
organ system
• Tied with lymphatic
system
• Most important immune
cells are lymphocytes
and macrophages
Organ System Overview
• Respiratory
• Keeps blood
supplied with
oxygen
• Removes carbon
dioxide
Figure 1.2h
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Slide 1.11
Organ System Overview
• Digestive
• Breaks down food
• Allows for nutrient
absorption into blood
• Eliminates indigestible
material
Figure 1.2i
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Slide 1.12
Organ System Overview
• Urinary
• Eliminates nitrogenous
wastes
• Maintains acid – base
balance
• Regulation of materials
• Water
• Electrolytes
Figure 1.2j
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Slide 1.13
Organ System Overview
• Reproductive
• Production
of offspring
Figure 1.2k
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Slide 1.14
The Language of Anatomy
• Special terminology is used to prevent
misunderstanding
• Exact terms are used for:
• Position
• Direction
• Regions
• Structures
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Slide 1.21
The Language of Anatomy
• Anatomical position—anatomical reference
point in which the body is erect & the arms
are hanging at the sides of the body with
palms forward and thumbs pointed away from
body.
(note: most directional terminology refers to
the body as if it were in this position)
• Directional terms—used to explain precisely
where one body structure is in relation to
another.
• Ex.
– “Ears are located on each side of the head to the
right and left of the nose and slightly higher than
the nose.”
– Using anatomical terms, this changes to:
“Ears are lateral and superior to the nose.”
Orientation and Directional Terms
Table 1.1
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Slide 1.22
Orientation and Directional Terms
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Table 1.1 (cont)
Slide 1.23
Assignment due tomorrow
• Using the terms on page 12 Table 1.1 in your
textbook (or handout provided)—
1. List the directional terms & definitions in
your notes (optional, but recommended).
2. Give 2 examples of each term in your
notebook (separate sheet of paper).
– Note: These CANNOT include the examples
already given.
Regional Terms
• See back of directional term handout and
learn these regions.
– Anterior body landmarks
– Posterior body landmarks
Body Landmarks
• Anterior
Figure 1.5a
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Slide 1.24
Anterior Body Landmarks
• Anterior body trunk
inferior to the ribs
abdominal
• Point of the shoulder
acromial
• Anterior surface of elbow
antecubital
• Armpit
axillary
• Arm
brachial
• Cheek area
buccal
• Wrist
carpal
• Neck region
cervical
• Hip
coxal
• Leg
crural
• Fingers, toes
digital
• Thigh
femoral
Anterior Body Landmarks
• Lateral part of leg
fibular
• Area where thigh meets
body trunk; groin
inguinal
• Nose area
nasal
• Mouth
oral
• Eye area
Orbital
• Anterior knee
patellar
• Area overlying the pelvis
anteriorly
pelvic
• Genital region
pubic
• Breastbone region
sternal
• Ankle region
tarsal
• Chest
thoracic
• Umbilical
naval
Body Landmarks
• Posterior
Figure 1.5b
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Slide 1.25
Posterior Body Landmarks
• head
cephalic
• Curve of shoulder formed
by large deltoid muscle
deltoid
• buttock
gluteal
• Area of back between ribs
and hips
lumbar
• Posterior surface of head
occipital
• Posterior knee area
popliteal
• Area between hips
sacral
• Shoulder blade region
scapular
• The posterior surface of
the lower leg; the calf
sural
• Area of spine
vertebral
Body Planes
Figure 1.6
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Slide 1.26
Body Planes
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•
Imaginary lines in which the body or its
organs are cut along.
Most common planes are:
1. Sagittal
2. Frontal
3. Transverse
There is also the oblique plane
Lie at right angles to one another
Sagittal Plane
•
•
Runs longitudinally and divides the body or
organ into right and left portions
2 types:
1. Midsagittal—occurs when sagittal plane is exactly
midline and the parts are symmetrical or equal (often
called the median sagittal plane)
2. Parasagittal—all other sagittal planes are called this
Frontal (coronal) Plane
• Runs longitudinally
• The body/organ is divided into anterior and
posterior portions
Transverse Plane
• Runs horizontally across long axis of the body
or organ; divides the body into superior and
inferior parts
• Tissue section cut along this plane for
microscope slides are referred to as cross
sections (c.s.)
Oblique Plane
• Plane that is intermediate between a
horizontal and longitudinal plane
Body Cavities
2 major body cavities
(dorsal and ventral) are
along the vertical axis
Ventral
body
cavity
Figure 1.7
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Slide 1.27
Dorsal Body Cavity
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•
Nearer the dorsal or posterior surface of the
body
2 parts:
1. Cranial cavity—brain encased by skull
2. Vertebral (spinal) cavity—forms a bony
enclosure around the delicate spinal cord
Ventral Body Cavity
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Anterior side, larger of the closed body
cavities
Houses a group of internal organs
collectively called the viscera
2 major divisions
1. Thoracic cavity
2. Abdominopelvic cavity
Ventral Body Cavity:
Thoracic Cavity
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•
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More superior of the two ventral cavities
Surrounded by ribs and muscles of chest
This cavity is divided into the following
areas:
1. Pleural cavities (2)—each houses a lung
2. Mediastinum—contains the pericardial cavity which
encloses the heart and also contains the remaining
thoracic organs such as the esophagus, trachea
Ventral Cavity:
Abdominopelvic Cavity
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•
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More inferior cavity
Separated from thoracic cavity by the
diaphragm
Has two regions:
1. Abdominal cavity
– Stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, and other organs
– Superior to the pelvic cavity
2. Pelvic cavity
– Inferior part
– Contains the bladder, some reproductive organs, and the
rectum
Ventral Cavity:
Serosa (serous membrane)
• Thin, double-layered membrane that covers
the walls of the ventral body cavity and the
outer surfaces of the organs it contains.
• 2 types:
1. Parietal serosa—part of the membrane lining the
cavity walls
2. Visceral serosa—part that covers the organs
Serosa cont.
• Within the body the serous layers are separated by a thin,
lubricating fluid called serous fluid.
• Serous fluid allows organs to slide easily across cavity walls
and one another without friction as they carry out their
functions.
– This is extremely important when looking at the heart as
it pumps blood, and the stomach as it churns during
digestion
– Inflammation of serous membranes and the
accompanying lack of lubricating fluid leads to
excruciating pain as organs stick together and drag
across one another. Ex. pleurisy or peritonitis
Pleurisy Video Clip
Other Body Cavities
(most open to body’s exterior)
• Oral (mouth)
– Contains teeth/tongue
– Continuous with the digestive organs
• Nasal
– Located within the nose
– Medially divided cavity is part of and continuous
with the passages of respiratory system
• Orbital
– Houses the eyes and presents them in an anterior
position
Other body cavities cont.
• Middle Ear
– Carved into the temporal bone of skull
– Contain tiny bones associated with transmission of
sound to the organ of hearing in the inner ear.
• Synovial
– Enclosed within fibrous capsules that surround
freely movable joints of body
– Synovial membranes also secrete a lubricating
fluid to reduce friction as bones move across one
another
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
Medical personnel
use a simple
scheme and divide
the abdominopelvic
cavity into 4
quadrants:
RUQ
LUQ
RLQ
LLQ
Figure 1.8a
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Slide 1.28
Abdominopelvic Regions
Figure 1.8b
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Slide 1.29
9 regions of abdominopelvic region
used by anatomists
• Uses 2 transverse and 2 parasagittal planes
– Superior transverse plane is just inferior to ribs
– Inferior transverse plane is just superior to hips
– Parasagittal plane lies just medial to the nipples
9 regions of abdominopelvic region
1. Umbilical—centermost
region deep to a
surrounding navel
2. Epigastric—located
superior to umbilical
region
3. Hypogastric (pubic)—
located inferior to
umbilical
4. & 5. R and L Iliac
(inguinal)—located
laterally to hypogastric
6. & 7. R and L lumbar—
lie laterally to umbilical
8. & 9. R and L
hypochondriac—flank
the epigastric region
laterally
Have you noticed Word Parts????
• Here are a few you may recognize:
Epi—upon, above
Gastric—stomach
Hypo—below
Iliac—superior part of hip bone
Lumbus—loin
Chondro—cartilage
Thoracic/Abdominopelvic Major Organs
Figure 1.8c
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Slide 1.30
8 Divisions of Anatomy
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Gross anatomy
Regional anatomy
Systemic anatomy
Microscopic anatomy
Developmental anatomy
Pathological anatomy
Molecular biology
Radiographic anatomy
8 Divisions of Anatomy
1.
Gross anatomy
– study of large body structures (heart, lungs, etc.)
2.
Regional anatomy
– all structures in given region
3.
Systemic anatomy
– Anatomy of body, system by system
4.
Microscopic anatomy
– Study of structures too small to be seen (cytology & histology)
5.
Developmental anatomy
– Deals with changes in structure from conception thru old age;
includes embryology
6.
Pathological anatomy
– Structural changes in body cells, tissue, & organs caused by disease
7.
Molecular biology
– Study of molecules necessary for body structure & function
8.
Radiographic anatomy
– Study of anatomy by means of x-ray images
Anatomy – Levels of Study
• Microscopic
Anatomy
• Gross Anatomy
• Large structures
• Easily observable
• Very small
structures
• Can only be
viewed with
a microscope
Figure 1.1
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Slide 1.2a
Most important tools for studying anatomy are
observation, manipulation, and a master of
anatomical terminology.
Anatomy provides a static image of the living
body.
Divisions of Physiology
(only a few are listed)
• Renal Physiology
– Urine production & kidney function
• Neurophysiology
– Explains workings of nervous system
• Cardiac physiology
– Examines operation of the heart
• Physiology reveals the dynamic nature of the
workings of the living body.
• Physiology tends to focus on cellular or
molecular level because what the body can do
depends on the operation of individual cells,
and what cells can do ultimately depends on
the chemical rxns that occur within them.
Anatomy & physiology are complimentary sciences.
• Explain this statement.
3 essential concepts of A & P
—form the bedrock of the study of the
human body
1. Complimentarities of structure & function
2. Hierarchy of structural organization
3. Homeostasis
Principle of complimentarity of
structure & function
• States that what a structure is capable of
doing depends critically on its specific design.
– Ex. Bones provide support and protection to body
organs b/c they contain hard mineral deposits
The Hierarchy of Structural
Organization
Levels of organization:
Atomcellstissuesorgansorgan systemsorganisms
• The organismal level represents the sum total of all levels
of complexity working continuously & in unison to promote
life.
• Multicellular state and the parceling out of vital body
functions to several different organ systems result in an
interdependence among all body cells.
Levels of Structural Organization
Figure 1.1
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Slide 1.3
8 Necessary Life Functions
*Important Note: Organ systems DO NOT work
in isolation. They work together to promote
the well being of the entire body.
*Think about, identify, & discuss in your notes
the most important organ systems or aspects
of the body that will contribute to each of the
necessary life functions.
1. Maintenance of boundaries
• Ensures that the internal environment
remains distinct from the external
environment surrounding it.
What systems or aspects?
2. Movement
• Involves all activities promoted by the
muscular system
What activities?
3. Responsiveness (Irritability)
• Ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the
environment and then reacting or responding
to these changes.
Systems?
Examples?
4. Digestion
• Process of breaking down ingested food to
simple molecules that can be absorbed into
the blood for distribution to all body cells by
CV (cardiovascular) system.
System?
5. Metabolism
• Encompasses all chemical rxns that occur w/n
body cells
Systems?
Anabolism—synthesizing more complex substances
from simpler ones using nutrients & O2 to
produce ATP
Catabolism—breaking down of complex substances
into simpler ones
6. Excretion
• Process of removing excreta, or wastes from
the body
• 3 types of wastes
1. Undigestible food
2. Nitrogenous metabolic wastes
3. CO2
Systems?
7. Reproduction
• Formation of offspring, can occur at the
cellular or organismal level
– Cellular reproduction—involves cell division
(mitosis)
– Organismal level—involves formation and union of
reproductive cells/gametes/eggs & sperm to form
a fertilized egg
• Function of the reproductive system is
regulated by hormones of endocrine system.
8. Growth
• An increase in size and is usually accomplished
through an increase in the number of cells in
cell division.
• True growth occurs when constructive
activities happen at a faster rate than celldestroying activities
Survival Needs
• Ultimate goal of nearly all body systems is to
maintain life.
• The following are factors needed by the living
organisms:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
Body temperature
Atmospheric pressure
1. Nutrients
• Contain the chemical substances used for
energy (E) and cell building
• CHO  major E fuel for body cells
• Proteins and fats are essential for building cell
structures
2. oxygen
• Needed b/c chemical rxns that release E from
foods are oxidative rxns which means they
require O2
3. Water
• 60-80% of body weight
• Single most abundant chemical substance in
the body
• Provides liquid environment necessary for
chemical rxns and the fluid base for body
substances and excretions
4. Body Temperature
• Must be maintained at 98⁰F (37⁰C) if chemical
rxns are to occur at life sustaining rates
5. Atmospheric Pressure
• Breathing and subsequent exchange of O2
and CO2 depends on the appropriate
atmospheric pressure
Homeostasis
• Ability to maintain relatively stable internal
conditions even as changes occur in the outside
environment
• This is not a “static” state, but rather a “dynamic”
state of equilibrium. This means that the internal
conditions change and vary, but always within
relatively narrow ranges.
• Communication is key!
– Accomplished by nervous and endocrine systems
– These sys. use electrical impulses carried along nerves or
blood-borne hormones as info carriers
3 Components of Homeostatic
Control Mechanisms
1. Control center
– Determines the set point at which a variable is to
be maintained, analyzes the input it receives and
then determines the correct response
2. Receptor
– Some type of sensor that monitors the
environment and responds to changes, called
stimuli
– Flow of info from the receptor to control center
occurs along the afferent pathway
3. Effector
– Provides means by which the control center can
cause a response (output) to the stimulus
– Info flows from control center to the effector
along the efferent pathway
– if results of response depresses stimulus, this is
known as negative feedback mechanism
– If results enhances stimulus, this is known as
positive feedback mechanism
Neg. vs. Pos. Feedback
Negative feedback
• Cause the variable to
change in a direction
“opposite” to that of the
initial change
Positive feedback
• Variable change that occurs
and proceeds in the same
direction as the initial
disturbance
• Often referred to as
“cascades”
Homeostasis cont.
• All homeostatic mechanisms have the same goal:
prevention of sudden severe changes
within the body
• Most disease is regarded as a result of the
disturbance to homeostasis; thus the term
homeostatic imbalance
– Ex. As a person ages, organs work less efficient,
causing internal environment to become less stable.