Transcript father`s brother`s sons (older or younger)

Chapter Six
Sense Relations and Semantic
Field
This chapter intends to discuss the
main sense relations among words
such as polysemy, homonymy,
synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy,
their sources, characteristics and
semantic field as well.

Main Points
1. Polysemy
1) Two approaches:
Synchronic
Diachronic
2) Two processes:
Radiation
Concatenation
2. Homonymy
1) Origins of homonyms:
Perfect homonyms
Homograph
Homophone
2) Origins of homonyms:
Change in sound and spelling
Borrowing
Shortening
3) Criteria to distinguish homonyms and polysemants:
Source
Relatedness in meaning

3. Synonymy
1) Types of synonyms:
Absolute synonyms (Complete synonyms or perfect
synonyms)
Relative synonyms (Near-synonyms or partial synonyms)
2) Sources of synonyms:
Borrowing
Dialects and regional English
Figurative and euphemistic use of words
Coincidence with idiomatic expressions
3) Discrimination of synonyms:
Difference in denotation
Difference in connotation
Difference in application

4. Antonymy
1) Types of antonyms:
Contradictory terms
Contrary terms (Gradable antonyms)
Relative terms (Relational opposites)
2) Characteristics of antonyms:
Antonyms are classified on the basis of semantic opposition.
A word may have more than one antonym.
Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion.
Contrary terms should be of same intensity.
3) Use of antonyms:
To define words
To form antithesis for rhetorical purpose
5. Hyponymy
Superordinate and subordinate terms
Effect of them in use
6. Semantic Field
Definition of semantic field
Function of semantic field
Variations of semantic fields in different languages

6.0 Sense relations :
Words are arbitrary symbols and are independent
identities so far as their outer facet—spelling and
pronunciation, is concerned. But semantically, all
words are related in one way or another. A word
which is related to other words is related to them in
sense, hence sense relations.
6.1 Polysemy (多义关系)
Polysemy is a sense relation that deals with words
of more than one meaning. Or: polysemy is a
common feature peculiar to all natural languages.
In modern English, an overwhelming majority of
words are polysemous. There are words that have
two or three senses, and the most commonly used
ones can have as many as over a hundred.
However, when a word is first coined, it is always
monosemic. But in the course of development, the
same symbol must be used to express more
meanings. The result is polysemy.
Two approaches to polysemy
We can study polysemy from two different angles: diachronic
approach and synchronic approach.
Diachronic approach (历时方法)
From the diachronic point of view, polysemy is assumed to be
the result of growth and development of the semantic
structure of one and same word.
Synchronic approach (共时方法)
From the synchronic point of view, polysemy is viewed as the
coexistence of various meanings of the same word in a
certain historical period of time. The basic meaning of a
word is the core of word-meaning (central meaning). The
derived meanings, no matter how many, are secondary in
comparison. However, the central meaning has gradually
diminished in currency with the changes in culture and
society, and one of the derived meanings has become
dominant.
Two processes of development
The development of word-meaning from monosemy to polysemy
follows two courses: radiation and concatenation.
1) Radiation(辐射型)
Radiation is a semantic process which shows the primary meaning
and each of the derived meanings are directly connected.
2)Concatenation(连锁型)
Concatenation is the semantic process which shows that the
primary meaning gives birth to a second meaning and this second
meaning in turn gives birth to a third meaning and so on. Each of
the derived meanings is directly related only to the previous meaning
and there is no direct connection between the primary meaning and
the latest developed meaning.
Concatenation describes a process where each of the later meaning
is related only to the preceding one like chains.
Fundamental difference between the processes of
radiation and concatenation
Radiation is a semantic process which shows that the
primary meaning and each of the derived meanings are
directly connected. e. g.
Neck
1)that part of a man or animal joining the head to the body;
2) that part of the garment;
3)the neck of an animal used as food;
4)a narrow part between the head and body or base of any
object;
5)the narrowest part of anything.
Of these five meanings, 1) is the primary and all the rest
are derived but each of the other four is directly related to 1).
Therefore, we can say neck has developed through the
process of radiation.
Concatenation is a semantic process which shows that the
primary meaning gives birth to a second meaning and this
second meaning in turn gives birth to a third meaning and so
on. Each of the derived meanings is directed only to the
previous meaning and there is no direct connection between
the primary meaning and the latest developed meaning. e.g.
Candidate
1)white-robed;
2)office seeker in white gowns;
3)a person who seeks an office;
4)a person proposed for a place, award, etc.
Of the four meanings, 1) is the primary and the other three
are derived, but each of the derived meanings is only directly
related to the preceding one and there is no direct connection
between 1) and 4). Therefore, we can say candidate has
developed through the process of concatenation.
6.2 Homonymy (同形同音异义关系)
Definition of homonyms: Homonyms are words which are different in
.
meaning but either identical in sound and spelling or identical only in
sound or spelling.
Types of homonyms: perfect homonyms, homographs and homophones
(based on the degree of similarity).
1)Perfect homonyms: words identical both in sound and spelling, but
different in meaning. e.g. bank 河岸，银行
2)Homographs (also known as Heteronyms): words identical only in
spelling but different in sound and meaning. e.g. bow [bau] 鞠躬，
bow[bou] 弓
3)Homophones: words identical only in sound but different in spelling
and meaning. e.g. deer鹿; dear亲爱的（人）
Origins of homonyms:
1)Change in sound and spelling.
2)Borrowing.
3)Shortening.
Difference between homonyms and polysemants（同形同音
异义词与多义词之区别）：
1)Homonyms refer to different words which happen to share the same
form, while a polysemant refers to the one and same word which has
several distinguishable meanings.
2)Homonyms are from different sources whereas a polysemant is from
the same source which has acquired different meanings in the course of
development by etymology.
3)Meanings of different homonyms have nothing to do with one another,
while the various meanings of a polysemant are correlated and connected
to one central meaning to a greater or lesser degree.
4)In dictionaries, homonyms are listed as separate entries whereas a
polysemant has its meanings all listed under one headword (entry ).
Rhetoric features of homonyms:
As homonyms are identical in sound or spelling, particularly
homophones, they are often employed to create puns for desired effect of
humor, sarcasm or ridicule.
6.3 Synonymy (同义关系)
Definition of synonyms:
A synonym is one of two or more words in the English
language which have the same or very nearly the same
essential meaning (WNDS). In other words, synonyms
share a likeness in denotation as well as in part of speech.
Types of synonyms:
1)Absolute synonyms (also complete synonyms or perfect
synonyms): words which are identical in meaning in all its
aspects and interchangeable in all situations.
2)Relative synonyms (also near-synonyms or partial
synonyms): words which are similar or nearly the same in
denotation, but embrace different shades of meaning or
different degrees of a given quality.
---How do you understand the statement
that “true synonymy is non-existent”?
Synonyms can be classified into absolute
synonyms and relative synonyms. Absolute
synonyms are considered to be identical in every
aspect, and are interchangeable in all situations.
They are confined to technical terms like wordformation—word-building; composition—
compounding. But even technical terms like these
might still have some slight difference, for instance,
one term is preferable in some situation, etc. That is
why we say “true synonymy is non-existent”.
Sources of synonyms:
The existence of English synonyms is mainly due to
1) borrowing.
2) dialects and regional English.
3) figurative and euphemistic use of words.
4) coincidence with idiomatic expressions.
Discrimination of synonyms:
1)Difference in denotation: Synonyms may differ in the
range and intensity of meaning.
2)Difference in connotation: Synonyms may differ in their
stylistic appropriateness and emotive colouring although
they share the same denotation.
3)Difference in application: Many words are synonymous
in meaning but different in usage. They form different
collocations and fit into different sentence patterns.
6.4 Antonymy (反义关系)
Definition of antonyms: Antonyms are words which are opposite
in meaning.
Types of antonyms:
1)contradictory terms (矛盾反义词) ：contradictory terms are
antonyms which are mutually exclusive. The assertion of one is the
denial of the other. Antonyms of this kind are non-gradable.
e.g. man→woman; present→absent.
2)Contrary terms (相对反义词；对立反义词 or gradable
antonyms 可分级反义词) ：contrary terms are gradable. Each pair
represents two extremes; there are often intermediate members in
between.
e .g. poor---well to do---rich; hot---warm, cool---cold.
3)Relative terms (关系反义词or relational opposites) ：relative
terms are relational opposites and they show an interdependence
between them. e.g. borrow→lend. If one borrows something from
another, the other lends it to him or vice versa. Without the first,
the other cannot exist.
Difference between relative terms and
contradictory terms:
Some of the relative terms look similar to
contradictory terms, but they are different. There
is an absolute opposition between contradictory
terms. Take man→woman for example. If the
adult is not a man, then the adult must be a
woman. But in the case of relative terms, the
opposition is only relational. For example,
husband→wife . If the adult is not husband, the
adult must be wife. This case is illogical and can
not hold water.
Characteristics of antonyms:
1)Antonyms are classified based on semantic opposition. Words
denoting nature, quality or state of things have many antonyms. Then
verbs denoting action or activity. Least antonyms are found among
nouns which are names of objects, domain, idea, etc. There are a great
many more synonyms than antonyms.
2)A word which has more than one meaning can have more than one
antonym. Or： A polysemic word can have more than one antonym.
3)Antonyms differ in semantic inclusion. In a pair of antonyms, the
unmarked term generally includes the sense of the marked.
4)Contrary terms are gradable antonyms, differing in degree of
intensity, so each has its own corresponding opposite. e.g. hot→cold;
warm→cool. Some words can have two different types of antonyms at
the same time, one being the negative (by adding negative prefix) and
the other opposite. e.g. happy→unhappy; sad.
Use of antonyms:
1)Antonyms are used to define the meanings of words.
2)Many idioms are formed with antonyms. They look
neat, pleasant, and sound rhythmic.
3)Antonyms are often used to form antithesis in proverbs
and savings.
4)Antonyms are used to serve the stylistic purposes.
6.5 Hyponymy (上下义关系)
Definition of hyponymy: Hyponymy is a sense relation
that deals with the relationship of semantic inclusion.
That is, the meaning of a more specific word is included
in that of another more general word.
Hyponymy can be described in terms of tree-like graphs, with higherorder superordinates above the lower subordinates. But their status either
as superordinate or subordinate is relative to other terms.
Living things
Creature
Animal
Plant
Insect
Horse
Dog
Pig
Mare
Hound
Swine
Cockroach
Vegetable
Flower
Tree
Cabbage
Rose
Pine
Difference between superordinates and subordinates:
Superordinates are words denoting genus, thus being general,
and subordinates are words denoting species, thus being specific.
Superordinates are cover terms which include the concept of the
subordinates whereas subordinates are specific and their
meanings are included in the sense of superordinates. Take
flower—rose, fruit---apple, for example. In each pair, the former
is the superordinate and the latter is subordinate.
--- Group the following words into semantic fields initiated with
the superordinate that covers each field:
desk, liquid, pork, go, furniture, gas, matter, run, beef, chair,
meat, mutton, table, fly, bed, solid, walk.
Answer: furniture: desk, chair, table, bed.
matter: liquid, gas, solid.
meat: pork, beef, mutton.
go: run, fly, walk.
--- Group the following words and give a term to
cover each:
Mercury, hearts, earth, lunch, diamonds, fire,
Venus, breakfast, spades, dinner, Earth, water,
Mars, supper, clubs, air, Saturn, Jupiter.
 Answer:
Patterns: hearts, diamonds, spades, clubs.
Planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter,
Saturn.
Natural elements: earth, fire, water, air.
Meals: lunch, breakfast, dinner, supper.

6.6 Semantic Field (语义场)
The massive word store of English as a language can be
regarded as a number of meaning areas, some are large,
others are smaller. The German linguist Trier saw vocabulary
as “integrated system of lexemes interrelated in sense.” So,
the “words of language can be classified into semantically
related sets or fields”. According to Trier’s vision of fields, the
whole vocabulary can be divided into fields. Words in each
field are semantically related and define one another.
Semantic field was first put forward by Jost Trier in the 30s of
last century.
A semantic field is a meaning area where words share the
same concept. A semantic field is useful because it helps pin
down the meanings of words in relation to other words in the
semantic field. Often a word is not known until the words that
operate with it become known.
 One
example: apple, pear, peach, apricot,
date, mango, pineapple, orange, lemon, etc.
make up the semantic field of “fruits”.
 Another example: celery, lettuce, leek,
cucumber, potato, spinach, tomato, egg-plant,
carrot and so on form the field of
“vegetables”.
 The third example: red, orange, yellow, green,
white, black, blue, purple, pink, etc. form the
field of “colours”.
 The
vocabulary of a language is in constant
change; old items drop out, new items come in,
and as the new replace the old, so the internal
relations of the whole set alter.
 The following two diagrams reflect the change.
The first shows the division 20 years ago; the
second shows the present division.
The first diagram
female
male
unmarried
Miss
Mr
.
married
Mrs
neutral
The second diagram
female
male
unmarried
Miss
Mr
.
married
Mrs
neutral
Ms
The following picture shows that the semantic
field of the same concept may not have the
same members in different languages
English
Chinese
father
father
mother
mother
uncle
father’ s younger brother 叔父
father’s elder brother 大伯
mother’s brother 舅舅
mother’s sister’s husband 姨父
father’s sister’s husband 姑父
aunt
father’s elder brother’s wife 大婶
father’s younger brother’s wife 小婶
father’s sister 姑母
mother’s sister 姨母
mother’s brother’s wife 舅母
cousin
father’s brother’s sons (older or younger) 堂兄弟
mother’s brother’s sons (older or younger) 舅表
兄弟
father’s brother’s daughters (older or younger)
堂姐妹
mother’s brother’s daughters (older or younger)
舅表姐妹
father’s sister’s sons (older or younger) 姑表兄弟
mother’s sister’s sons (older or younger)
姨表兄弟
father’s sister’s daughters (older or younger)
姑表姐妹
mother’s sister’s daughters (older or younger)
姨表姐妹
nephew
brother’s sons (older or younger) 侄子
sister’s sons (older or younger) 外甥
wife’s brother’s sons (older or younger) 内侄
wife’s sister’s sons (older or younger) 姨侄
niece
brother’s daughters (older or younger) 侄女
sister’s daughters (older or younger) 外甥女
wife’s brother’s daughters (older or younger)
内侄女
wife’s sister’s daughters (older or younger)
姨侄女


----Words of the semantic field are related by the same
concept and so are groups of synonyms. Can you differentiate
a semantic field from a synonymously semantic field? Study
the two groups of words below and explain the difference.
horse: steed, charger, palfrey, plug, nag
horse: pony, mustang, mule, stud, mare.
Answer:
Group（a）is synonymously semantic field and Group（b）
is semantic field. The difference lies: In Group（a）, the
words are synonyms, none of them covers the meaning of
another, and they differ only in style and emotive values.
That is, they are all different names for horse. In Group
（b）, the words are not synonyms, but each refers to a
specific type of horse. Horse is a cover term or superordinate,
and others are subordinates. They have no difference in style
or affective meaning. That is, they are different kinds of
horses.
㈠ Questions
1.What is polysemy?
Polysemy is a sense relation that deals with words of more than one
meaning.
2. What is radiation and concantenation?
Radiation is a semantic process which shows that the primary
meaning and each of the derived meanings are directly connected.
Concatenation is the semantic process which shows that the primary
meaning gives birth to a second meaning and this second meaning in
turn gives birth to a third meaning and so on. Each of the derived
meanings is directly related only to the previous meaning and there is
no direct connection between the primary meaning and the latest
developed meaning.
3.What are the major sources of English synonyms?
The existence of English synonyms is mainly due to 1) borrowing,
2) dialects and regional English, 3) figurative and euphemistic use of
.
words and 4) coincidence with idiomatic expressions
4. What is hyponymy?
Hyponymy is a sense relation that deals with the relationship of
semantic inclusion. That is, the meaning of a more specific word is
included in that of another more general word.
㈡ Complete
the following passage with appropriate words
A semantic field is a ____ area where words share the same ____ .
A semantic field is useful because it helps pin down the_____ of words in
relation to other words in the____ . Often, a word is not known until the
words that ____ with it becomes known.
meaning, concept, meanings, semantic field, operate.
㈢ Decide whether the statements below are true or false.
1. Perfect homonyms share the same spelling and pronunciation.
2. Homonyms come mainly from borrowing, changes in sound and spelling, and
dialects.
3. Homonyms are words whose meanings are closely related.
4. The origins of the words are a key factor in distinguishing homonyms from
polysemants.
5. Words which have opposite meanings are called antonyms.
6. Contradictory terms do not show degrees.
7. Relative terms are relational opposites, which include verbs reversing the action
of each other.
8. Contrary terms are non-gradable and allow intermediate members in between.
9. If a word has synonyms, naturally it has antonyms.
10. The unmarked term of an antonymous pair often covers the meaning of the
marked.
11. Antonyms should be opposites of similar intensity.
12. Antonymy deals with the relationship of semantic opposition.
T—F—F—T—T—T—T—F—F—T—T—T.