Transcript AP Ch 26

CHAPTER 26 The New
Power Balance
1850–1900
New Technologies and the World
Economy
Railroads
By 1850 the first railroads
had proved so successful
that every industrializing
country began to build
railroad lines.
Railroad building in Britain,
France, Germany, Canada,
Russia, Japan, and
especially in the United
States fueled a tremendous
expansion in the world’s rail
networks from 1850 to 1900.
In the non-industrialized world, railroads
were also built wherever they would be of
value to business or to government
Railroads consumed huge amounts of
land and timber for ties and bridges.
Throughout the world, railroads opened
new land to agriculture, mining, and other
human exploitation of natural resources.
Steamships and Telegraph Cables
In the mid-nineteenth century
a number of technological
developments in shipbuilding
made it possible to increase
the average size and speed
of ocean-going vessels.
These developments
included the use of iron (and
then steel) for hulls,
propellers, and more efficient
engines
Entrepreneurs developed
a form of organization
known as the shipping line
in order to make the most
efficient use of these large
and expensive new ships.
Shipping lines also used
the growing system of
submarine telegraph
cables in order to
coordinate the movements
of their ships around the
globe.
The Steel and Chemical Industries
Steel is an especially hard
and elastic form of iron
that could be made only in
small quantities by skilled
blacksmiths before the
eighteenth century.
A series of inventions in
the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries made
it possible to produce
large quantities of steel at
low cost.
Until the late
eighteenth century
chemicals were also
produced in small
amounts in small
workshops.
The nineteenth
century brought largescale manufacture of
chemicals and the
invention of synthetic
dyes and other new
organic chemicals
Nineteenth century
advances in explosives
(including Alfred Nobel’s
invention of dynamite)
had significant effects
on both civil
engineering and on the
development of more
powerful and more
accurate firearms
The complexity of industrial chemistry made it
one of the first fields in which science and
technology interacted on a daily basis.
This development gave a great advantage to
Germany, where government-funded research
and cooperation between universities and
industries made the German chemical and
explosives industries the most advanced in the
world by the end of the nineteenth century.
Electricity
In the 1870s inventors
devised efficient generators
that turned mechanical
energy into electricity that
could be used to power arc
lamps, incandescent lamps,
streetcars, subways, and
electric motors for industry
Electricity helped to
alleviate the urban pollution
caused by horse-drawn
vehicles.
.
World Trade and Finance
Between 1850 and 1913 world trade
expanded tenfold, while the cost of freight
dropped between 50 and 95 percent so
that even cheap and heavy products such
as agricultural products, raw materials,
and machinery were shipped around the
world
The growth of trade and close connections
between the industrial economies of
Western Europe and North America
brought greater prosperity to these areas,
but it also made them more vulnerable to
swings in the business cycle.
One of the main causes of this growing
interdependence was the financial power
of Great Britain.
Non-industrial areas were also tied to the world
economy.
The non-industrial areas were even more
vulnerable to swings in the business cycle
because they depended on the export of raw
materials that could often be replaced by
synthetics or for which the industrial nations
could develop new sources of supply.
Nevertheless, until World War I, the value of
exports from the tropical countries generally
remained high, and the size of their populations
remained moderate
Social Changes
Population and Migrations
Between 1850 and 1914
Europe saw very rapid
population growth
Emigration from Europe
spurred population growth in
the United States, Canada,
Australia, New Zealand, and
Argentina.
As a result, the proportion of
people of European ancestry
in the world’s population rose
from one-fifth to one-third.
Reasons for the increase in European
population include:
1. A drop in the death rate
2. Improved crop yields
3. The provision of grain from newly
opened agricultural land in North America
4. And the provision of a more abundant
year-round diet as a result of canning and
refrigeration
Asians also migrated in large numbers
during this period, often as indentured
laborers
Urbanization and Urban
Environments
In the latter half of the nineteenth century
European, North American, and Japanese
cities grew tremendously both in terms of
population and of size.
In areas like the English Midlands, the
German Ruhr, and around Tokyo Bay,
towns fused into one another, creating
new cities.
Urban growth was accompanied by changes in
the character of urban life.
Technologies that changed the quality of urban
life for the rich (and later for the working class as
well) included:
1. Mass transportation networks
2. Sewage and water supply systems
3. Gas and electric lighting
4. Police and fire departments
5. Sanitation and garbage removal
6. Building and health inspection, schools, parks,
and other amenities.
New neighborhoods
and cities were built
(and older areas often
rebuilt) on a
rectangular grid pattern
with broad boulevards
and modern apartment
buildings.
Cities were divided into
industrial, commercial,
and residential zones,
with the residential
zones occupied by
different social classes.
While urban environments improved in
many ways, air quality worsened.
Coal used as fuel polluted the air, while
the waste of the thousands of horses that
pulled carts and carriages lay stinking in
the streets until horses were replaced by
streetcars and automobiles in the early
twentieth century.
Middle-Class Women's “Separate
Sphere”
The term “Victorian Age” refers not only to
the reign of Queen Victoria (r.1837–1901),
but also to the rules of behavior and the
ideology surrounding the family and
relations between men and women.
Men and women were thought to belong in
“separate spheres,” the men in the
workplace, the women in the home.
Before electrical appliances, a middleclass home demanded lots of work
The advent of modern technology in the
nineteenth century eliminated some tasks
and made others easier
But rising standards of cleanliness meant
that technological advances did not
translate into a decrease in the
housewife’s total workload.
The most important duty of middle-class
women was to raise their children.
Victorian mothers lavished much time and
attention on their children, but girls
received an education very different from
that of boys.
Governments enforced legal discrimination
against women throughout the nineteenth
century
Society frowned on careers for middle-class
women.
Women were excluded from jobs that required
higher education
Teaching was a permissible career, but women
teachers were expected to resign when they got
married.
Some middle-class women were not satisfied
with home life and became involved in volunteer
work or in the women’s suffrage movement.
Working-Class Women
Working-class women led lives of toil and
pain.
Many became domestic servants, facing
long hours, hard physical labor, and sexual
abuse from their masters or their masters’
sons
Many more young women worked in
factories, where they were relegated to
poorly paid work in the textiles and
clothing trades.
Married women were expected to stay
home, raise children, do housework, and
contribute to the family income by taking in
boarders, doing sewing or other piecework
jobs, or by washing other people’s clothes.
Socialism and Labor Movements
Socialism means
a political and economic theory of social
organization that advocates that the
means of production, distribution, and
exchange should be owned or regulated
by the community as a whole
Marx and Socialism
Socialism began as an intellectual
movement.
The best-known socialist was Karl Marx
(1818–1883) who, along with Friedrich
Engles (1820–1895) wrote the Communist
Manifesto (1848) and Das Kapital (1867).
Marx saw history as a long series of
clashes between social classes
Marx's theories provided an intellectual
framework for general dissatisfaction with
unregulated industrial capitalism
Marx took steps to translate his intellectual
efforts into political action
Labor Movements
Labor unions were organizations formed
by industrial workers to defend their
interests in negotiations with employers.
Labor unions developed from the workers’
“friendly societies” of the early nineteenth
century and sought better wages,
improved working conditions, and
insurance for workers
During the nineteenth century workers were
brought into electoral politics as the right to vote
was extended to all adult males in Europe and
North America.
Instead of seeking the violent overthrow of the
bourgeois class, socialists used their voting
power in order to force concessions from the
government and even to win elections
The classic case of socialist electoral politics is
the Social Democratic Party of Germany
Nationalism and the Unification of
Germany and Italy
Nationalism means
1.spirit or aspirations common to the whole of a nation.
2.devotion and loyalty to one's own country; patriotism.
3.excessive patriotism; chauvinism.
4.the desire for national advancement or political
independence.
5.the policy or doctrine of asserting the interests of one's own
nation viewed as separate from the
interests of other nations or the common
interests of all nations.
Language and National Identity
Before 1871
Language was usually the crucial element in
creating a feeling of national unity, but language
and citizenship rarely coincided.
The idea of redrawing the boundaries of states
to accommodate linguistic, religious, and cultural
differences led to the forging of larger states
from the many German and Italian principalities,
but it threatened to break large multiethnic
empires like Austria-Hungary into smaller states
Until the 1860s nationalism was associated with
liberalism ( liberalism- a political philosophy or
worldview founded on ideas of liberty and
equality), as in the case of the Italian liberal
nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini.
After 1848 conservative political leaders learned
how to preserve the social status quo (existing
state of affairs)by using public education,
universal military service, and colonial
conquests to build a sense of national identity
that focused loyalty on the state
The Unification of Italy, 1860–1870
By the mid-nineteenth
century, popular sentiment
favored Italian unification.
Unification was opposed by
Pope Pius IX and Austria
(Why?)
Count Cavour, the prime
minister of PiedmontSardinia, used the rivalry
between France and Austria
to gain the help of France in
pushing the Austrians out of
northern Italy
In the south, Giuseppe
Garibaldi led a revolutionary
army in 1860 that defeated
the Kingdom of the Two
Sicilies.
A new Kingdom of Italy,
headed by Victor Emmanuel
(the former king of
Piedmont-Sardinia) was
formed in 1860.
In time, Venetia (1866) and
the Papal States (1870)
were added to Italy
The Unification of Germany, 1866–
1871
Until the 1860s the Germanspeaking people were divided
among Prussia, the western half
of the Austrian Empire, and
numerous smaller states.
Prussia took the lead in the
movement for German unity
because it had a strong
industrial base in the Rhineland
and an army that was equipped
with the latest military,
transportation, and
communications technology
During the reign of Wilhelm I
(r. 1861–1888) the Prussian
chancellor, Otto von Bismarck
achieved the unification of
Germany through a
combination of diplomacy and
the Franco-Prussian War.
Victory over France in the
Franco-Prussian War
completed the unification of
Germany, but it also resulted
in German control over the
French provinces of Alsace
and Lorraine and thus in the
long-term enmity between
Which you will
learn how this
enmity unfolds
in ww1 and post
ww1
Read about Otto von Bismark
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figure
s/bismarck_otto_von.shtml
Nationalism after 1871
After the Franco-Prussian War all politicians
tried to manipulate public opinion in order to
bolster their governments by using the press
and public education in order to foster
nationalistic loyalties.
In many countries the dominant group used
nationalism to justify the imposition of its
language, religion, or customs on minority
populations, as in the attempts of Russia to
“Russify” its diverse ethnic populations
Social Darwinism
Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) and others
took up Charles Darwin’s ideas of “natural
selection” and “survival of the fittest” and
applied them to human societies in such a
way as to justify European conquest of
foreign nations and the social and gender
hierarchies of Western society.
The Great Powers of Europe,
1871–1900
Germany at the Center of Europe
International relations revolved around a united
Germany, which, under Bismarck’s leadership,
isolated France and forged a loose coalition with
Austria-Hungary and Russia.
At home, Bismarck used mass politics and
social legislation to gain popular support and to
develop a strong sense of national unity and
pride amongst the German people
Wilhelm II (r. 1888–1918) dismissed
Bismarck because he opposed Bismarck's
careful foreign policy, preferring vigorous
and rapid expansion to enlarge Germany's
"place in the sun" and initiated a German
foreign policy that placed emphasis on the
acquisition of colonies
The Liberal Powers: France and
Great Britain
France was now a second-rate power in Europe,
its population and army being smaller than those
of Germany, and its rate of industrial growth
lower than that of the Germans.
French society seemed divided between
monarchist Catholics and republicans with
anticlerical views; in fact, popular participation in
politics, a strong sense of nationhood, and a
system of universal education gave the French
people a deeper cohesion than appeared on the
surface
In Britain, a stable government and a narrowing in the
disparity of wealth were accompanied by a number of
problems.
Particularly notable were Irish resentment of English
rule, an economy that was lagging behind those of the
United States and Germany, and an enormous empire
that was very expensive to administer and to defend.
For most of the nineteenth century Britain pursued a
policy of “splendid isolation” toward Europe;
preoccupation with India led the British to exaggerate the
Russian threat to the Ottoman Empire and to the Central
Asian approaches to India while they ignored the rise of
Germany
The Conservative Powers: Russia and AustriaHungary
The forces of nationalism
weakened Russia and
Austria-Hungary.
Austria had alienated its
Slavic-speaking minorities
by renaming itself the
“Austro-Hungarian Empire.”
The Empire offended
Russia by attempting to
dominate the Balkans, and
particularly by the
annexation of BosniaHerzogovina in 1908
Ethnic diversity also contributed to
instability in Russia.
Attempts to foster Russian nationalism
and to impose the Russian language on a
diverse population proved to be divisive
In 1861 Tsar Alexander II emancipated the
peasants from serfdom, but did so in such
a way that it only turned them into
communal farmers with few skills and little
capital.
Tsars Alexander III (r. 1881–1894) and
Nicholas II (r. 1894–1917) opposed all
forms of social change.
Russian industrialization was carried out by the
state, and thus the middle-class remained small
and weak while the land-owning aristocracy
dominated the court and administration.
Defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904–
1905) and the Revolution of 1905 demonstrated
Russia’s weakness and caused Tsar Nicholas to
introduce a constitution and a parliament (the
Duma), but he soon reverted to the traditional
despotism of his forefathers.
Japan Joins the Great Powers,
1865–1905
China, Japan, and the Western
Powers, to 1867
In the late nineteenth century China
resisted Western influence and became
weaker; Japan transformed itself into a
major industrial and military power.
The difference can be explained partly by
the difference between Chinese and
Japanese elites and their attitudes toward
foreign cultures.
In the late nineteenth century China
resisted Western influence and became
weaker; Japan transformed itself into a
major industrial and military power.
The difference can be explained partly by
the difference between Chinese and
Japanese elites and their attitudes toward
foreign cultures.
In China a “self-strengthening movement” tried
to bring about reforms, but the Empress
Dowager Cixi and other officials opposed
railways or other technologies that would carry
foreign influences into the interior.
They were able to slow down foreign intrusion,
but in doing so, they denied themselves the best
means of defense against foreign pressure.
In the early nineteenth century, Japan was
ruled by the Tokugawa shogunate and
local lords had significant autonomy.
This system made it hard for Japan to
coordinate its response to outside threats
In 1853, the American Commodore
Matthew C. Perry arrived in Japan with a
fleet of steam-powered warships and
demanded that the Japanese open their
ports to trade and American ships
Read about Commdore Perry and the Opening of Japan by clicking
on the link
http://www.history.navy.mil/branches/teach/ends/opening.htm
Dissatisfaction with the shogunate's
capitulation to American and European
demands led to a civil war and the
overthrow of the shogunate in 1868
The Meiji Restoration and the
Modernization of Japan, 1868–
1894
The new rulers of Japan were known as the Meiji
oligarchs
The Meiji oligarchs were willing to change their
institutions and their society in order to help transform
their country into a world-class industrial and military
power.
The Japanese had a long history of adopting ideas and
culture from China and Korea; in the same spirit, the
Japanese learned industrial and military technology,
science, engineering, and even clothing styles and
pastimes from the West.
The Japanese government encouraged
industrialization, funding industrial
development with tax revenue extracted
from the rural sector and then selling
state-owned enterprises to private
entrepreneurs.
The Birth of Japanese Imperialism
Industrialization was accompanied by the
development of an authoritarian
constitutional monarchy and a foreign
policy that defined Japan’s “sphere of
influence” to include Korea, Manchuria,
and part of China
Japan defeated China in a
war that began in 1894, thus
precipitating an abortive
Chinese reform effort (the
Hundred Days Reform) in
1898 and setting the stage
for Japanese competition
with Russia for influence in
the Chinese province of
Manchuria.
Japanese power was further
demonstrated when Japan
defeated Russia in 1905 and
annexed Korea in 1910