Transcript Renaissance - Henry County Schools

Renaissance
 Oligarchy
 A form of government in which all power is vested in a
few persons or in a dominant class.
 During the Renaissance era Italy was run by the upper
class.
Renaissance
 Grandi
 Nobles and Merchants
 The grandi traditionally ruled the city.
Renaissance
 "popolo grasso“
 Capitalist and Bankers
 They began to challenge the grandi for political power.
Renaissance
 "popolo minuto“
 Lower economic class
 They lead the Ciompi Revolt due to economic
suppression
Renaissance
 Ciompi Revolt
 Revolt of the popolo minuto
 It established a chaotic four year reign of power by the
lower Florentine classes.
Renaissance
 Cosimo de Medici
 Cosimo de Medici:
 The first of the Medici political dynasty
 He established the Signoria.
Renaissance
 Lorenzo de Medici
 Italian statesman and ruler of the Florentine Republic
 He established a despot called podesta to prevent internal
social conflict.
Renaissance
 Signoria
 A council of six to eight guild members
 It governed the city of Florence.
Renaissance
 Condotteri
 Military Brokers
 It helped Lorenzo maintain law and order in Florence
Renaissance
 Humanism
 The study of Latin and Greek classics to promote a rebirth
of ancient times.
 Humanist advocated studia humanitatis which is a
liberal arts program that embraced grammar, history,
politics and moral philosophy
Renaissance
 Civic Humanism
 Education designed to promote humanist leadership of
political and cultural life
 Civic Humanists Salutati, Bruni and Bracciolini were
chancellors of Florence who rallied Florence against
Naples and Milan.
Renaissance
 Petrarch
 Humanist Writer
 He celebrated ancient Rome in his work “Letters to the
Dead” and his biographies of famous Roman men.
Renaissance
 Dante
 Humanist writer
 He wrote Divine Comedy which were the corner stones
of the Italian Vernacular literature.
Renaissance
 Boccaccio
 Pioneer of humanist studies
 He assembled an encyclopedia of Greek and Roman
Mythology
Renaissance
 Castiglione
 Italian Humanist Writer
 He wrote “Book of the Courtier” which illustrates that the
rediscovered knowledge of the past is both a model and a
challenge to the present.
Renaissance
 Lorenzo Valla
 Humanist scholar
 He wrote and Expose of the Donation of Constantine
using textual analysis and historical logic to prove that
the Donation was filled with anarchist terms and
information
Renaissance
 Leonardo da Vinci
 Great painter known as the “Renaissance Man”
 He painted Mona Lisa.

Renaissance
 Raphael
 Italian Painter
 He painted Madonnas
Renaissance
 Michelangelo
 Painter and sculptor
 He painted David and the Sistine Chapel
Renaissance
 Treaty of Lodi
 Peace agreement issued on April 9, 1454 between the
Milan and Naples.
 In 1494 the peace ended when Naples supported by
Florence threatened Milan.
Renaissance
 Alexander VI
 Bogia Pope
 He was a corrupted Pope who supported the crusades of
Caesar and Lucrezia

Renaissance
 Louis XI
 King of France
 He unified France and put down the alliances of unruly
nobles
Renaissance
 Charles VIII
 French King
 Within five months he conquered land from the Alps to
Florence and the Papal States in Naples.

Renaissance
 Louis XII
 King of France
 In 1500 he and Ferdinand of Aragon divided Naples
between themselves
Renaissance
 Girolamo Savonarola
 Priest and Leader of Florence
 On May 13, 1497 he was excommunicated by Alexander
VI.
Renaissance
 Ludovico il Moro
 King of Italy
 He encouraged the French participation in wars which
resulted in the Italian War
Renaissance
 Julius II
 Warrior Pope
 Suppressed Borgia and place conquered lands in
Romagna under papal jurisdiction
Renaissance
 Emperor Maximillian I
 Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire
 He expanded the influence of the House of Habsburg
Renaissance
 Ferdinand & Isabella
 Married and united Castile and Aragon.
 They accomplished things together that neither one of
them could do alone such as securing their borders and
christianizing Spain.
Renaissance
 The War of the Roses
 English civil war that was fought by the House of
Lancaster and House of York for the English throne
 The House of York was victorious and the English
throne was given to Edward IV.
Renaissance
 Henry VII
 King of England
 He established the King’s council to keep the nobles in
check and to ensure that they paid their taxes.

Renaissance
 Holy Roman Empire
 United Germany, Austria, Bohemia and Morsula under
one ruler
 Originated in 926 under the rule of King Otto I and
ended in 1806 when Francis III dismissed it.
Renaissance
 Johann Gutenburg
 He invented the printing press
 The first thing to be printed was copies of the bible to
be distributed to the common people
Renaissance
 Thomas More
 Humanist Scholar
 He was the author of Utopia
Renaissance
 Erasmus
 Northern Humanist
 He was a life long Catholic who pushed for major
Church Reforms
Renaissance
 Christian Humanism
 Belief that human freedom and individualism are a natural
part of the Christine doctrine and practice.
 Roman Catholic Priest who migrated to America
wanted to convert Native Americans to Christianity
and bring them European learning and civilization.
Renaissance
 Conquistadors
 Spanish soldiers, explorers and adventurers who invaded
and conquered territories in America and brought them
under Spanish rule
 Christopher Columbus is an example of a
conquistador.
Renaissance
 Encomienda
 A system instituted in 1503 under which Spanish soldiers
or colonists were granted a tract of land or a village with
its Indian inhabitants.
 It declined by the 16th century because Spanish monarchs
feared its holders might become too powerful.
Renaissance
 Repartimiento
 Required adult male Indians to devote a certain amount of
days of annual labor to Spanish economic empires.
 The limitation on labor time led Spanish managers to a
used their workers on the assumption that fresh workers
would soon replace them.

Renaissance
 Mita
 Required adult male Indians to devote a certain amount of
days of annual labor to Peru economic empires.
 The limitation on labor time led Peru managers to a
used their workers on the assumption that fresh
workers would soon replace them.
Reformation
 The Modern Devotion
 Also, known as the Brothers of the Common Life, were
religious individuals that did not necessarily agree with
the actions of the Catholic Church and sought to provide
aid to the impoverished European community.
 Martin Luther and Erasmus were both part of the Modern
Devotion, which pushed a desire to have religious
scriptures in the vernacular, or in the spoken language of
an area.
Reformation
 William of Ockham
 A central religious figure in the medieval times, and in
contrast to Thomas Aquinas, his major ideologies got his
condemnation from the Catholic Church.
 Ockham was an English medieval writer, setting the
precedent for the denunciation of Catholic values by the
English during the Reformation. Furthermore, Ockham
was one of the first individuals that promoted a separation
of state and religion, by having an emperor and Pope
ruling and having equal power.
Reformation
 John Wycliffe
 A religious leader in the fourteenth century, who laid the
foundations for Protestant Reformation, because of his
challenge to the established quo, or the power of the Catholic
Church. His followers were called the Lollards.
 Wycliffe believed that the clergy needed to be less concern
about their physical life and play a more important role in their
religious life. Also, he believed personal merit was the basis to
a true religious person and he was denounced of being a
Donatist because he believed that the performance of religious
sacraments depended on both the moral of the person and the
performance
Reformation
 Jan Huss
 Jan Huss led the movement in Bohemia, which sought to
reform the Catholic Church in Central Europe, although, it
lacked a lot of controlling power, and a contemporary of
Wycliffe.
 He was against the established power of the Catholic
Church; he denounced the validity of some sacraments
and the idea of transubstantiation, which would be
extremely popular among Luther and Zwingli, two
centuries later. Also, he supported the translation of the
scriptures in the vernacular.
Reformation
 Avginon Papacy
 The split of the Catholic Church because of the influence
of the French monarchy in the papacy, which weakened its
hold on European society.
 The Catholic Church began to lose strength because of its
political manipulation of the countries and its economic
desire to gain wealth. European countries denounced the
Church for its inability to unite it. Britain restricted the
flow of money that went to Rome, while the French were
able to control how many and which cardinals it would
sent to Rome.
Reformation
 Great Schism
 The Great Schism is the split of the church along the line
of who was the ruling pope, at one point there were three
popes ruling over the papacy. One was supported by the
French, and another by the Church in Rome.
 This separation demonstrated the weakness of the Church
and how easily a political conflict could weaken its power
over Europe. Also, it helped future reformers because it
helped pin point problems within the Catholic Church.
Reformation
 Concilliarism
 The Concilliar movement in Europe wanted to reunify the papacy by which
the cardinals called meetings to elect their pious leader. Concilliarism
sought to regulate the power of the Pope by creating a council of cardinals.
After the Council of Constance, the three existing popes were removed from
power, and Pope Martin V was elected.
 Concilliarism gave more freedom to the local churches and their secular
governments. Therefore, monarchies began exercising more power over the
church lands and began expanding their economic desires. This movement
also allowed countries to leave the radar of the Church, and conquering their
own economic and social aspirations
Reformation
 Benefice System
 The Benefice system gave priests money for guiding the laity and
also provided money to the Church. By having multiple laities to
tend, the priest gained more money, which was used for Church
activities, such as the education of reformers, such as Martin Luther
and John Calvin.
 The benefice system funneled large sums of money into the Church
and the clergy. However, during the Protestant Reformation, the
benefice system would become one of Luther’s main challenges to
the Church and desire to reform it.
Reformation
 Martin Luther
 Luther became the largest challenger to Catholicism after his posting of the
Ninety-Five thesis in 1517 in Germany. Luther sought to reform the
Catholic Church after denouncing the sale of indulgences, the translation of
religious scriptures in the vulgate, and the manipulation of the laity for
economic desires.
 Luther had a defining effect during the sixteenth century because of his
reformist views of the Catholic Church. His views were used to form the
new Christian sect called the Protestants, even though he did not want to
separate from the Church. His three main views were justification by faith
alone, attack on indulgences, and sola scriptura.
Reformation
 Indulgences
 People were able to buy off their sins if they could pay for them,
which would allow them to avoid going to purgatory. The sale of
indulgences funded the creation of St. Peter’s Basilica.
 Indulgences became one of the most attacked ideologies of the
Catholic Church. These sales manipulated the fear and social
inability of Europeans to understand the economic needs of the
Catholic Church. However, the sale of indulgences were not the main
issue, it was that secular governments did not receive part of the
wealth generated from the indulgences.
Reformation
 Treasury of Merit
 The Treasury of Merit was an infinite reliable source of
good works, by which the pope could give to people and
forgive their sins. From this treasury, there were the
indulgences, which were sold to help people remove their
own sins, but also of their deceased relatives.
 The Treasury manipulated the social foundations of
Europeans by creating this sense of fear of death and hell,
which people would go to if they did not do their good
works. This undermined the religious purpose of the
Church and demonstrated its secular wants.
Reformation
 John Tetzel
 During the fifteenth and sixteenth century, Tetzel was a
major proponent of the sale of indulgences. He was able to
create this fear or stir action within the European
populace.
 The claims that Tetzel made about the damnation that
people suffered because of their sins were completely
denounced by Martin Luther and his followers. The sale of
indulgences released major issues about the growing
secularism of the Catholic Church.
Reformation
 Charles V
 Charles V was the King of Spain and the Spanish Holy
Roman Emperor. He established the Habsburg dynasty
over the Spanish and Austrian throne.
 Charles V was the protector of Catholicism during the
sixteenth century. However, he could not fight a war on
three fronts. He waged war against the French and the
Ottomans, while having to combat the growing power of
Protestantism. His inability to fight their power allowed
the Protestants to gain power and flourish throughout
Europe.
Reformation
 Diet Of Worms
 After the Pope issued the Exsurge Domine, demanding
that Luther withdraw his ideas, Luther was summoned
before the Diet in Germany, where issues pertaining to the
Holy Roman Empire were discussed.
 Luther’s condemnation at the Diet of Worms by Charles V
demonstrated the slowly deteriorating power of the
Church. Luther’s excommunication did not really make a
dent in the Protestant movement, and it did not stop
Luther from proceeding with his challenge to Catholicism.
Reformation
 Habsburg Dynasty
 The Habsburg Dynasty were the ruling family of Spain,
after the ascension of Spanish global power, Charles V
was elected Holy Roman Emperor of the Germanic states.
 The Habsburgs were extremely powerful during the
fifteenth and sixteenth century; however, the Reformation
weakened their grip in Europe. Also, after Charles V and
Philip II of Spain, Spain and Austria were controlled by
two different leaders. The Holy Roman Emperor would be
Austrian; furthermore, he would have little power within
the political sphere of Germany
Reformation
 Peasants Revolt
 In 1525, peasants in the Holy Roman Empire revolted
against the secular and social lords that wanted to continue
overtaxing them without the peasantry’s consent. They
were Christians, who were heavily influenced by Lutheran
ideology.
 The Peasants Revolt demonstrated that Luther was not
about a social revolution throughout Europe, he only
sought to reform the Catholic Church. He supported the
lords and secular leaders, which squashed the revolt.
Reformation
 Ulrich Zwingli
 Zwingli led the reformation in the Swiss cantons, where
the power of the Catholic Church was not extremely
strong. Zwingli proposed a society where the religious and
political aspect united to make a holier community.
 Zwingli believed that anything that was not in the Bible
should not be practiced; therefore, some of the seven
sacraments and the sale of indulgences should not be
followed because the Bible does not include them.
Reformation
 First and Second Disputations
 The Disputations were religious and political meetings
held in Zurich, where Zwingli’s ideology was accepted as
law. The disputations proved to help promote Zwingli’s
ideas throughout the town to the people.
 The Disputations demonstrated the desire that people had
to separate itself from the Catholic Church and its
hierarchical supremacy.
Reformation
 The Marburg Colloquy
 In 1529, Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli met up in the
castle of Philip of Hesse, who wanted to unite the two
Protestant forces, which would further weaken the
Catholic Church. However, the two were unable to agree
over the issue of transubstantiation.
 The Marburg Colloquy weakened the Protestant
movement because the two major leaders could not agree
on one issue. The issue separated them into separate
political factions.
Reformation
 Swiss Civil War
 The civil war between the Protestant and Catholic forces
in Switzerland. Zwingli was harshly hacked up during the
battle for his Protestant faith.
 The Civil War allowed each leader to pick the religion for
their state. This demonstrated the inability of the Catholic
Church to squash the religious quarrels within its laity.
Reformation
 Anabaptists
 The Anabaptists were radical Christians that did not follow
Protestant or Catholic ideals. Instead, they believed that people
should be baptized as adults, and they wanted to return to
original Christian values, where secular values were not
involved.
 The Anabaptists represented a possible peasant and laity revolt
for the people because they challenged the natural order of life,
which was socially haunting. Although, they did not agree with
the Protestants and Catholics, they were not necessarily ready
to participate in giving the peasantry rights.
Reformation
 John Calvin
 John Calvin represented the most hard core of the Protestant reformers in
Europe. He united the secular and religious ideologies, similar to Zwingli;
however, he made laws forbidding “inappropriate” conduct. He created a
regimented society, where people followed only what was written in the
Bible, not the ideas promoted by the Catholic Church.
 Calvin’s separate society weakened the power of the Catholic Church
because it demonstrated the ability of a community to thrive without a
religious entity that misrepresented European values. Also, this served as a
model for European monarchs, which sought to create their own societies
without the overshadowing power of the Catholic Church.
Reformation
 Predestination
 Predestination is an ideology, which was promoted by
John Calvin in the sixteenth century Protestant
Reformation. It states that everyone is born either
condemned to hell or saved and going to heaven. Also, the
idea promotes an understanding and all-loving God, which
can help lessen fear of going to heaven.
 The main issue with predestination is that it undermines
human free will. The idea that people’s lives are already
determined and they can no way influence any change in
it, squashes any possibility of free will
Reformation
 Schmalkaldic League
 1530s, A powerful defensive alliance formed by German
Protestant lords, in order to defend themselves against the
forces of Charles V.
 The League demonstrated how the Protestants could unite
and raise resistance to Protestant values.
Reformation
 Diet Of Worms
 1521, Charles V declares Martin Luther an outlaw; his
friends disguised and hid him at the instruction of Elector
Frederick.
 Declaring someone an outlaw or excommunicating
someone had been a traditional way of punishing nondangerous criminals; however, it did not affect Luther’s
success against Catholicism.
Reformation
 Peace of Augsburg
 1555; This act recognized that the ruler of a land would
determine its religion (Cuius regio, eius religio). In
addition Lutheranism was recognized as a legal form of
Christianity.
 The Peace of Augsburg created controversy within the
German states because other groups, such as the Calvinists
did not gain legal recognition.
Reformation
 English Reformation
 In the early 1520s English reformers met in Cambridge to
discuss Lutheran writings smuggled into England by
merchants and scholars; Lollardy and humanism provided
some of the native seeds for religious reform. What
ultimately allowed England to be consumed by
Protestantism were Henry VIII’s affairs.
 A Protestant England was evitable as it was the king’s
fault. Henry had been the primary defender of the faith
and turned his back on it because of his personal affairs.
Reformation
 Submission of the Clergy
 It placed canon law under royal control and thereby the
clergy under royal jurisdiction.
 This represents the on going conflict between church and
state that has occurred all throughout history.
Reformation
 Act of Succession
 The act made Anne Boleyn’s children legitimate heirs to
the throne.
 Anne Boleyn gave birth to one of the most dominant
figures in 16th century England; Elizabeth I.
Reformation
 Act of Supremacy
 It declared Henry as the supreme head of the Church of
England.
 By instituting this act Henry broke his ties with the
Roman Catholic Church. This was unprecedented and
would a lasting influence on Europe.
Reformation
 Ten Articles
 In these articles Henry made mild concessions to
Protestant doctrine.
 Henry VIII remained religiously conservative his did not
deliberately allow Protestantism to spread in England.
Reformation
 Six Articles
 These articles were passed as a response to the growing
popularity of Protestantism.
 This showed that Henry was reluctant to let Protestant
views spread in England.
Reformation
 Thomas Woolsey
 He was the chief minister of King Henry VIII; he helped
to guide royal opposition of Protestantism.
 Woolsey had been one of Henry’s long time advisors and
was dismissed in 529 because he failed to secure the
annulment of Henry’s marriage
Reformation
 Thomas More
 Like Woolsey, More led royal opposition against
Protestant views. He was executed when he failed to
recognized the Act of Succession and Act of supremacy.
 This showed that Henry sought to establish a government
of loyal followers and would not tolerate opposition.
Reformation
 Act of Uniformity
 The first act imposed Thomas Cranmer’s Book of
Common Prayer on all English churches. The second
imposed a revised version of Cranmer’s book on all
English churches.
 Cranmer was a protestant sympathizer so one would
expect his book on common prayer to introduce
Protestantism to the English Church.
Reformation
 Catherine of Aragon
 Catherine was the wife of Henry VIII and aunt of Charles
V. Her turbulent marriage with Henry VIII prompted the
separation from the Catholic Church.
 Catherine and Henry separated, which led to the creation
of the English Anglican country, which led it to become an
extremely powerful country.
Reformation
 Pope Julius II
 Julius II issued a special dispensation that annulled
Henry’s marriage with Catherine therefore allowing him to
marry Anne Boleyn.
 Julius II was a disgrace to the position of the pope as he
was known as the warrior pope.
Reformation
 Thomas Cranmer
 Cranmer was a Protestant sympathizer that had been an
adviser of Henry VIII and wrote the Book of Common
Prayer.
 Cranmer was one of those responsible for introducing
Protestantism into England. He in addition helped Henry
VIII annul his marriage with Catherine.
Reformation
 Thomas Cromwell
 Cromwell, similar to Cromwell, was a close adviser to
Henry VIII, which allowed him to gain prominence within
his country.
 He influenced Henry in issuing the Ten Articles that
allowed sparks of Protestantism into the English religious
system.
Reformation
 Reformation Parliament
 1529, Parliament convened for what would be a seven-
year session of legislation. This established a precedent of
the monarchy having to convene with parliament in order
to make fundamental changes in religion.
 The precedent established by the actions of this parliament
would later be broken by future monarchs
Reformation
 Anne Boleyn
 Henry VIII annulled his marriage with Catherine to marry
Anne Boleyn; she gave birth to Elizabeth I. In 1536 she
was executed for alleged treason and adultery.
 She was one of the several wives that Henry had during
his lifetime.
Reformation
 Edward VI
 Henry broke the ice for Protestantism in England while
Edward VI, his son, completed what is now known as the
English reformation.
 Edward allowed protestant views to reach a level of
popularity never before seen in England.
Reformation
 Book of Common Prayer
 It was written by Thomas Cranmer and instituted by
Edward VI, it introduced moderate protestant doctrine.
 It represented a radical change in the English Church as
there had never been such a change in the English Church.
Reformation
 Act of Uniformity
Reformation
 Ignatius Loyola
 A dominant figure in the Counter-Reformation era, he was
the founder of a society known as the Jesuits in the 1930s,
they sought to go out and convert people to Catholicism.
 The efforts of the Jesuits helped to win many Protestants
back to Catholicism. There presence was also felt in the
Americas as they continuously traveled on missions of
religious conversion.
Reformation
 Council of Trent
 The council met in three sessions through a period of
eighteen years; due to interruptions by war, plague and
politics. Indulgences were forbidden, and education of
parish priests was enforced among other things. The
council reaffirmed Scholasticism as it did not address
doctrinal concessions of the Protestants.
 The council sought to solve the religious problems that
characterized much of the first half of the 16th century.
The council sought to use educational legislation of priests
to gain support.
Age of Religious Wars
 Calvinists
 They justified inspired political resistance
 They are important because they will inspire French
Protestants that will eventually lead to the French
Wars of Religion
Age of Religious Wars
 Presbyterian
 Scottish Calvinists and English protestants who
advocated a national church composed of
semiautonomous congregations governed by
“presbyteries”
 This will become a type of government body.
Age of Religious Wars
 Episcopal
 A type of religious worship
 It is a government system. It is replaced by a more
representative Presbyterian form like those in Calvinist
churches in Scotland.
Age of Religious Wars
 Huguenots
 French protestants
 Catherine de Medici in the St. Bartholomew’s Day
Massacre will target them.

Age of Religious Wars
 Charles V
 Father of Phillip II and Holy Roman Emperor.
 Charles will give his son and brother major territories
Age of Religious Wars
 Edict of Fontainebleau
 It subjected French Protestants to the Inquisition.
 This is a start to the monarchy trying to suppress the
reformation in France.

Age of Religious Wars
 Henry II
 Was involved in a freak accident at his daughter’s
wedding ending in his death.
 This shift in power will end up with three major
families seeking to gain control of a weak France.

Age of Religious Wars
 Phillip II
 Heavily taxed his people; organized the lesser nobility
into a loyal and efficient national bureaucracy
 He will enhance Spanish sea power. He will lead the
Catholic attack on Protestants.

Age of Religious Wars
 Francis II
 Son of Catherine de Medici. Was very ill.
 As a result of his death, his mother will take control of
his reign and launch an attack against the Huguenots.
Age of Religious Wars
 Catherine de Medici
 Regent of her ill son Francis II.
 Will obtain power after the death of her son and will
play a major role in the attack against the Huguenots.
Age of Religious Wars
 Bourbons
 Family that controlled the south of France.
 They will attempt to control France at its weak time.
Age of Religious Wars
 Montmorency-Chatillon
 The strongest family in France that controlled eastern
France.
 They will become friendly with Catherine de Medici
after she fears a threat from the Huguenots.

Age of Religious Wars
 Guises
 The strongest family in France that controlled eastern
France.
 They will become friendly with Catherine de Medici
after she fears a threat from the Huguenots.
Age of Religious Wars
 Louis I
 Prince of Conde. Political leader of the French
Protestant resistance
 Converted by wife to Calvinism and will be suspected
as “soft” to Catholics by his people
Age of Religious Wars
 Admiral Gaspard de Coligny
 Political leader of the French Protestant resistance
 Will be assassinated by a supposed Catherine Medici
and Guises’ machination.

Age of Religious Wars
 1562: January Edict
 Issued by Catherine, which granted Protestants
freedom to worship publicly outside towns but
privately in them and to hold synods.
 This was a first taste of religious freedom for
Huguenots, but the joy will be short lived because the
duke of Guises will murder a group of worshippers.
Age of Religious Wars
 Conde
 Louis I, prince of Conde
 Conde will be assassinated and power will shift to
Coligny
Age of Religious Wars
 Peace of Saint Germain
 Ended the third war of the French Wars of Religion
 This acknowledged the power of the Protestant
nobility

Age of Religious Wars
 St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre
 Catherine de Medici feared an attack by Huguenots,
and this was a way to get rid of Protestant leaders. On
Saint Bartholomew’s Day August 24, 1572 Coligny and
3,000 Huguenots were butchered in Paris. With in 3
days attacks were made and 20,000 Huguenots were
killed.
 This will increase the tension between Protestants and
Catholics.

Age of Religious Wars
 John Knox
 A former exiled Scot reformer.
 His first-hand experience under the rule of Mary of
Guise and Mary I will lay the groundwork Calvinist
resistance.
Age of Religious Wars
 Henry of Navarre
 Becomes king after Henry III is assassinated. He issued
the Edict of Nantes, which permitted Huguenots to
worship publicly, to have success to the universities
and to public office, and to maintain fortified towns in
France to protect themselves.
 His efforts to give Huguenots a sense of freedom will
end, when Louis XIV comes to power
Age of Religious Wars
 Peace of Beaulieu
 Granted the Huguenots almost complete and civil
freedom.
 For some time this appeases the Huguenots, and
allows them to have some sort of citizenship
Age of Religious Wars
 Day of the Barricades
 Henry III tried to rout out the league. He failed and
had to flee Paris.
 Henry’s failure will lead him to the aid of Henry of
Navarre.
Age of Religious Wars
 Catholic League
 They were a radical group in the Church.
 The League made Henry repeal the Peace of Beaulieu.
Age of Religious Wars
 Edict of Nantes
 It granted the Huguenots freedom of worship, the
right of assembly, admission to public offices and
universities, and permission to maintain fortified
towns.
 Louis XIV will revoke this
Age of Religious Wars
 Cardinal Granville
 Headed the special state council in the Netherlands.
 The people hated Granvelle
Age of Religious Wars
 William of Orange
 He confessed Catholic, Calvinist and Lutheran. He put
the problems of the Netherlands above religious
decrees.
 William will be affected by the St. Bartholomew’s Day
Massacre and become an avowed Calvinist.

Age of Religious Wars
 The Compromise of 1564
 The Compromise was a national covenant, a solemn
pledge to resist the decrees of Trent and the
Inquisition.
 In 1566, Calvinists rioted throughout the country.
Age of Religious Wars
 The Duke of Alba
 Alba was dispatched by Philip to suppress a revolt.
 The result, was the public executions of several
thousand heretics.

Age of Religious Wars
 Council of Troubles
 The Spanish version of the counts of Egmont and
Horn and several thousand heretics were publicly
executed.
 The Spanish levied new taxes, forcing the Netherlands
to pay for the suppression of its own revolt.
Age of Religious Wars
 Council of Blood
 The Netherlands version of the counts of Egmont and
Horn and several thousand heretics were publicly
executed.
 The Netherlands will be forced to pay for the
suppression of the revolt.

Age of Religious Wars
 Sea Beggars
 International group of anti-Spanish exiles and
criminals.
 They captured Brill and other Seaports in the Zeeland
and Holland. Such moves sparked rebellions against
Alba and spread the resistance towards the south.
Age of Religious Wars
 Don Luis Requesens
 Replaced Alba in November 1573
 He replaced the commander responsible for the
Council of Troubles, which was a time of public
executions.
Age of Religious Wars
 Pacification of Ghent
 Pacification of Ghent: The union of the Catholic
southern provinces of the Netherlands and the
Protestant northern provinces.
 Such a union declared internal religion sovereignty in
matters of religion, which was main political clause for
cooperation.
Age of Religious Wars
 Don John
 Don John: He was the victor of the Battle of Lepanto in
1571 against the Turks.
 He was responsible for the signing of the Perpetual
Edict, which caused for the removal of all Spanish
troops from the Netherlands.
Age of Religious Wars
 Perpetual Edict
 Perpetual Edict: Edict that showed the strength of the
unified Dutch provinces and their resistance to
Spanish power.
 This edict allowed the country to William of Orange
and ended plans for having the Netherlands of source
for invasion by Philip II.
Age of Religious Wars
 Union of Arras
 Union of Arras: In January 1959, the Spanish revived
their influence in the Southern provinces.
 Such a union of the southern provinces took place due
to the growing fear of Calvinism; this union will later
help the Counter Reformation cause.
Age of Religious Wars
 Union of Utrecht
 Union of Utrecht: In response to the Union of Arras,
the Northern provinces unified against the Catholic
powers.
 The Union of Utrecht shows significance because it
gave resistance to the southern provinces and Spain.
Age of Religious Wars
 Mary Tudor
 Mary Tudor: Mary Tudor was the son of Henry III, who
came to the English throne in 1553.
 Mary Tudor was a strict catholic who executed many
Protestants for heresy. She also was in a political
marriage with Philip II, which will later show the
obsession of Spanish power.
Age of Religious Wars
 Jane Grey
 Jane Grey: She was the daughter of a powerful
Protestant nobleman and granddaughter of Henry III.
Edward VI looked to put her on the throne instead of
Mary.
 Such a move to have a Protestant monarchy in control
contributes to the growing sense of Protestantism in
England. On the other hand, popular support for
hereditary monarchy was still strong at this time.
Age of Religious Wars
 Elizabeth I
 Elizabeth I: She was the daughter of Henry III and
Anne Boleyn and a successful politique.
 Elizabeth was responsible for merging a centralized
Episcopal system with Protestant doctrine and
traditional Catholic ritual, demonstrating the true
forms of the hybrid, Anglican Church
Age of Religious Wars
 Act of Supremacy (in Elizabeth's Reign)
 Act of Supremacy: In 1559, act repealed anti Protestant
legislation of Mary Tudor and made Elizabeth supreme
ruler in religious and temporal affairs.
 This act gave Elizabeth the power to make
Protestantism the official religion in the Church of
England, and also allowed her to avoid extreme
Catholic or Protestant revolts.
Age of Religious Wars
 Act Of Uniformity
 Act of Uniformity: This was passed on the same year as
the Act of Supremacy, which mandated all English to
have a copy of the Thirty-Nine articles.
 Such an act allowed the Protestant rule book to be in
the homes of all English people so they would follow
the rule of Elizabeth.
Age of Religious Wars
 Mary Stuart/Mary Queen of Scots
 She was the daughter of King James V and Mary of
Guise; she also became queen of the Scots, but forced
to abdicate to England because of a scandal.
 In England, Mary was a symbol of possible Catholic
England and assumed popular support by the
Catholics, which caused discomfort to Elizabeth I.
Age of Religious Wars
 Sir Francis Drake
 In 1587, Drake shelled the port of Cadiz, which
inflicted heavy damages on Spanish sips and
interrupted their war reparations.
 Such an attack on the Spanish forced them to
postpone their time of invasion upon the English until
1588.
Age of Religious Wars
 The Spanish Armada
 The Spanish Armada: In 1588, the Spanish looked to
invade the English, but the strong winds forced the
Armada back.
 The English victory against the Spanish signifies the
decreasing power of Spain and the growing power of
Great Britain.
Age of Religious Wars
 Peace of Augsburg
 In 1555, Charles V issued a peace where the rulers of an
area in Germany can choose the religion of their land.
 The Peace of Augsburg will cause a fragmented
Germany, and religious division which will lead to the
Thirty Years’ War.
Age of Religious Wars
 Frederick III
 He was a devout Calvinist who became Elector Palatine
and made Calvinism the official religion of his
domain.
 This domain became the head of a Protestant
defensive which contained support of England, France,
and the Netherlands.
Age of Religious Wars
 Maximilien of Bavaria
 Maximilien organized a Catholic League to counter a
new Protestant alliance that has been formed under
Frederick IV.
 Such a League will give an opponent to the
Protestants, which will cause the horrific Thirty Years’
War of religion.
Age of Religious Wars
 Frederick IV
 He became the new Calvinist Elector Palatine
 He formed a new alliance of Protestants which
pressured Maximilien of Bavaria to form an alliance of
Catholics.
Age of Religious Wars
 Bohemian Period
 The war broke out in Bohemia after the ascension of
the throne of Ferdinand.
 Ferdinand looked to turn the Habsburgs back to
Catholicism which will cause the actions of The
Protestants, leading to war.
Age of Religious Wars
 Defenestration of Prague
 The Protestant nobility threw Ferdinand’s regents
outside a window in response to his act in 1618.
 Such a move demonstrated that the people of Bohemia
did not look to Ferdinand as their ruler, but in
Frederick V, a Calvinist.
Age of Religious Wars
 Ferdinand II
 Ferdinand became the Holy Roman Emperor by an
unanimous vote.
 As emperor, he looked to take control of Bohemia and
end the revolt against his rule in that region.
Age of Religious Wars
 The Danish Period
 Ferdinand II looked to re-conquer and re- Catholicize
the empire, which caused Christian IV of Denmark to
pick up resistance.
 Ferdinand possessed a successful mercenary who
managed to break up protestant resistance in the
region.
Age of Religious Wars
 Albrecht of Wallenstein
 He was a powerful mercenary who gained a great deal
of territory in the Bohemian period and carried the
campaign to Denmark.
 Albrecht caused the many Protestant lands to be
greatly broken up, and such a development allowed
Ferdinand to take control of such lands.
Age of Religious Wars
 Edict of Restitution
 Reasserted the lands taken from the Catholics and
reaffirmed the illegality of Calvinism.
 This edict reversed the power of the Peace of
Augsburg, which gave Lutherans church holdings of
the Catholics.
Age of Religious Wars
 The Swedish Period
 In this period, the victory of the Protestants reversed
the course of the war.
 This period demonstrated the French and the
Netherlands wanting to hold out on war in their
growth of investments and to see Spain suffer.
Age of Religious Wars
 Gustavaus Adolphus
 He was the Swedish king of a unified Lutheran nation
and became the new Protestant leader in the opening
of the Swedish Period.
 Adolphus possessed military genius because each unit
of his army had both defensive and offensive capability
and could quickly change from one to another
Age of Religious Wars
 Battle of Breitenfield
 The Protestant forces won against the Catholic forces
in 1630, as a unified Brandenburg and Saxony.
 During the Swedish Period, the battle made a new
curve as the Protestant gained a better foothold of
battle against the Catholics.
Age of Religious Wars
 Peace of Prague
 The German Protestant states reached a compromise
with Ferdinand II, but France and the Netherlands did
not cave in.
 Because France and the Dutch did not agree with
peace, the war was bragged on to the last and more
devastating phase.
Age of Religious Wars
 The Swedish French Period
 During this period, the war became a time were The
French, Swedish, and Spanish just fought to fight.
 During this period, Germany was too disunited to
repulse the foreign armies and the war had killed onethird of the German population.
Age of Religious Wars
 The Treaty of Westphalia
 The Treaty of Westphalia reasserted the major
conditions of the Peace of Augsburg and legalized
Calvinism.
 During these peace agreements, you can see the rise of
power between the French and the English, while the
Spanish are not involved in such agreements
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 William III
 The Dutch Stadholder that eventually became William
I of England
 His reign effectively ended the reign of the Stuart
family and the strengthening of Parliament
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Stadholder
 The Dutch equivalent of King or Governor that ruled
all the Dutch provinces
 The most known Stadholders were the two Williams of
Orange, the first who resisted the Spanish, the third
who became William I of England
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Dutch East Indies Company
 The Dutch Company that dominated and imperialized
parts of Asia
 One of the earliest examples of Mercantilism
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 James I
 The Scottish king that succeeded the throne after
Elizabeth I
 He was first English king to who believed in divine
right and Absolutism.
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Puritans
 The English version of Calvinists that left England
after being persecuted by James I
 These were the colonists that settled modern America.
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Mary Queen of Scots
 The Catholic Scottish Queen that was heir to the
throne before she was beheaded by Elizabeth I for
conspiracy attempts.
 She was the mother of James I
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Presbyterian
 The congregational form of order associated with
Protestantism
 The form of order is both religious and governmental
which was essential in making England a superpower
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Episcopal
 The top down management that is associated with
Catholicism
 This form of order led to the Absolutist times of the
French
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Impositions
 James I and Charles I tactic of levying taxes upon the
populous without the consent of Parliament
 This is the first step towards the Glorious Revolution
and the creation of modern England
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Millenary Petition
 The Conference in which James I refused to
acknowledge the grievances of the Puritans
 This conference made it easier for the Puritans to move
to the Americas
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Hampton Court Conference
 The Conference in which James I refused to
acknowledge the grievances of the Puritans
 This conference made it easier for the Puritans to move
to the Americas
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Plymouth Colony
 The first colony set up by the Puritans in the Americas
 This colony eventually led to the settling of the
Americas and the expanding of British influence.
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Duke of Buckingham
 The noble favorite of King James I, who was also
rumored to be his homosexual lover
 This person showed the dangers of Absolutism to the
members of Parliament
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Charles I
 The son of James I that was beheaded during the
English Civil War
 His death marked a time of change and tribulation for
the English
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 "Forced Loans“
 Charles I method of forcing nobles to loan the
monarchy money without the intention of paying it
back
 This was the primary cause of the English Civil War in
which Charles I was beheaded
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Petition of Right“
 The petition that Parliament gave to Charles I stating
that he cannot force any taxation or loans without
Parliament’s permission.
 Charles I dismissal of this Petition started the English
Civil War
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Ship Money
 The measure passed by Charles I in which he taxes any
person in 30 miles of the English Coast
 This violates the Petition of Right causing Parliament
to rebel
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 William Laud
 Charles I archbishop who tried to impose Catholicism
upon England
 William Laud successfully alienated Parliament even
further from the monarchy
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 John Pym
 The leader of the Long Parliament that revolted
against the king
 His revolt eventually led to the Glorious Revolution of
1688
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Short Parliament
 The Parliament in which Charles I called upon to
garner finances before he dissolved it
 This was effectively the last time Parliament worked
for Charles I
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Long Parliament
 This Parliament was the Parliament that lasted during
the English Civil War.
 This Parliament was transformed into the ‘rump’
parliament by Oliver Cromwell
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Grand Remonstrance
 The bill of grievances that Long Parliament presented
to Charles I and was dissolved for.
 The refusal of this bill made Long Parliament furious
enough to revolt against Charles I
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Militia Ordinance
 The bill Parliament passed to allow them to raise an
army against the king
 This allowed the rise of Oliver Cromwell and the
common wealth
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Cavaliers
 The kings soldiers in the English Civil War
 These would be considered conservatives, and
monarchists.
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Roundheads
 The soldiers of Parliament that toppled the monarchy
 This force allowed Oliver Cromwell to rise to power,
and set up the Commonwealth
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Oliver Cromwell
 The leader of the roundheads that later seizes power as
Lord Protector
 This shows the cycle of most revolutions
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 New Model Army
 The new setup of the military that Cromwell set ups
against the Cavaliers
 This set the basis for modern armies ever since
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 "Prides Purge“
 This was the killing was any non-Puritan army
member in an effort to purify the army
 This shows the dangers of the religious fanaticism of
Oliver Cromwell
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 "Rump Parliament“
 The Calvinist section of Parliament that was the only
reigning members after Oliver Cromwell eliminated
the non-Puritan members.
 This shows the dangers of the religious fanaticism of
Oliver Cromwell
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Charles II
 Son of Charles I who had Catholic sympathies thanks
to his time in France
 He caused more tension between the restored
monarchy and Parliament
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 The Restoration
 Charles II become king of England after the fall of he
Commonwealth
 This was an error on Parliament part because the next
two kings would prove to be identical as their father
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Treaty of Dover
 English and French alliance economic competitor the
Dutch
 This shows one of the few times France and Britain
have been on the same side
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Test Act
 All the king’s minister’s have to renounce
transubstantiation, banning Catholics from having
office
 This was aimed at the Catholic brother James II
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 "Popish Plot“
 Titus Oates starts a plot that a Catholic assassination
of Charles II was going to occur
 Its was taken seriously as England was deeply antiCatholic at this time
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 James II
 The Catholic brother of Charles II who was deposed by
William I
 The last Stuart king to rule England
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 "Glorious Revolution“
 The creation of the constitutional monarchy in
England.
 Significant because it ends most political factionalism
in England, and creates a stable environment that
assists growth in the future.
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 William of Orange
 The Dutch grandson of the original William of Orange
 He later becomes William I of England
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Bill of Rights
 The bill given to King William I guaranteeing
Parliament power over the King
 This effectively ended any major conflict between
Parliament and the monarchy
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Act of Settlement
 Said if William dies without a heir, the crown would go
to the Hanoverian throne.
 This prevented any conflict over who would rule
England next
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 The Hanoverian Dynasty
 The German throne that rules in England after
William I
 A member of the Hanoverian Dynasty was George III
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Whigs
 The conservative side of Parliament
 This side was pro-monarchy and pro-noble
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Tories
 The liberal side of Parliament
 This side was usually pro-people, and pro-Parliament
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 George I
 The 1st Hanoverian King of Britain
 He was the first Hanoverian king of Britain and
grandfather of George III
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Robert Walpole
 The first prime minister of England
 He was the model of what a prime minister was.
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Henry IV
 The first Bourbon king of France
 He was formerly known as Henry of Navarre
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Louis XIII
 The son of Henry IV who was precursor the reign of
Louis XIV
 He ruled under the regency of Cardinal Richelieu until
he was old enough to reign
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Duke of Sully
 The duke that helped Henry IV reign when he began
as ruler
 He was the first noble to help the Bourbon monarchy
survive
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 "corvee'“
 An amount of labor required of French citizens from
the landed nobles
 This was the backbone of French industry during the
17th century
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Treaty of Fontainebleau
 Subjected French Protestants to the Spanish
Inquisition
 This shows the heavy Catholic influence in France
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Cardinal Richelieu
 The regent that ruled behind Louis XIII
 He embodies the Catholic influence in Absolutist
France
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Louis XIV
 The First absolutist king of France
 He was the strongest ruler, besides Napoleon, France
ever had
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Cardinal Mazarin
 Advisor to Louis XIV
 He was to Louis XIV as cardinal Richelieu was to Louis
XIII
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 "Parlement“
 The French version of Parliament
 These were local institutions that were controlled by
the monarchy
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Fronde
 The French revolt against the monarchy of Louis XIV
 This influenced Louis to become an absolute ruler
against the people
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Versailles
 The castle town in which Louis XIV constructed to
make the nobles loyal
 This was a key method to subject the nobles to the
kings will
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Jean Baptiste Colbert
 He was the financial minister of Louis XIV that
allowed him to feed his war machine
 He was a direct cause military might that France
boasted during the years of Louis
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Jean Baptiste Colbert
 He was the financial minister of Louis XIV that
allowed him to feed his war machine
 He was a direct cause military might that France
boasted during the years of Louis
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 War of "Devolution“
 Louis XIV believed that Spanish Netherlands should
devolve to him because his wife had claims to it
 He was essentially rebuffed by a coalition of Protestant
forces
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
 France wins insignificant cities on the border of the
Netherlands
 This treaty marked the end of a useless war that
drained the French economy
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 John Law
 The next financial minister who created the
Mississippi Bubble
 He was a failure in a sense he couldn’t save the
economy
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 The Mississippi Bubble
 The economy didn’t have enough gold to back the
paper money it issued
 This discredits the French government
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Cardinal Fleury
 The regent that ruled after Louis XIV
 He was a moderate ruler in the sense he made some
reform and progress
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes
 This law made it illegal to be a Huguenot in France
 Louis achieves religious uniformity through this law
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 League of Augsburg
 This was the Protestant coalition against French
supremacy
 This effectively stopped French dominance of the
continent
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 The Wars of Spanish Succession
 The wars of who would Spain’s new world holdings
and wealth
 Louis XIV loses this war further depleting his economy
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Treaty of Utrecht
 This treaty assured British dominance in Europe
 Ended the Wars of Spanish Succession.
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Liberum Veto
 The Polish tradition that if one nobles resist a bill in
parliament it doesn’t get passed
 This effectively made Poland the whipping boy for
Europe for centuries
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Pragmatic Sanction
 All Habsburg lands will be passed down to Maria
Theresa
 This was violated Frederick the Great
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Maria Theresa
 The Habsburg queen who preceded Joseph II
 She was diplomatically strong but not militarily
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Frederick William (The Great Elector)
 The first Prussian ruler to reform Prussia
 He started the Prussian militarism
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Frederick I
 The first Prussia king after Frederick William
 He was the lest Prussian king of them all
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Frederick William I
 The father of Frederick the Great
 He began the connection between the Junker class and
the military
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Junkers
 The German equivalent of a noble
 The Junker class dominated the Prussia lifestyle
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Streltsy
 The Russian military officials who dominated the
Russian czar regime
 They were subjected by Peter the Great to gain power
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Boyars
 The old nobility of Russia
 These men dominated the Russian czar power base
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Great Northern War
 The war between Sweden and Russia to gain more
territory
 The Russia win this war and acquire some warm water
ports
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Table of Ranks
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Colleges
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Millets
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Dhimmis
17th/18th Century Absolutism/Constitutionalism/State
Consolidation
 Ulama
New Directions in Thought
 Copernicus
 He is a polish priest and an astronomer, who published “on the
revolutions of the heavenly Spheres. He also came up with the
idea of heliocentric-which removed the earth from the center of
the earth and placed the sun in the center.
 He is significant because he provides an intellectual springboard
for a complete criticism of the then dominant view of the
position of the earth in the universe. He also is important
because his findings would open the door for many natural
scientist like Galileo to build up on it.
New Directions in Thought
 Ptolemaic System
 this system was on the basis in which natural
philosophers made mathematical calculations relating
to astronomy.
 It is significant because it gave rise to many other
problems; the most important was the observed
motions of the plane
New Directions in Thought
 Tycho Brahe
 o
He was a Danish astronomer, who took the next major step
toward the conception of the sun-centered system. He did not
embrace Copernicus view of the sun-centered system. He spent
most of his time advocating the earth centered system. He
suggested that mercury and Venus revolved around the sun, but
the moon, the sun and other planets around the earth.

 o
He is significant because his mathematical findings were
used by Johannes to further promote the concept of sun being
the center of the earth.
 On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres
o
this was the book written by Copernicus in
attempt to challenge the Ptolemaic picture in a most
conservative manner possible.

o
this book is significant because, it would come to
challenge the old thinking that the sun and other
planets moved around the earth. the most major
impact of this book is that, it provides another way of
confronting some of the difficulties inherent in the
Ptolemaic astronomy.
New Directions in Thought
 Johannes Kepler
 o he was Brahe’s assistant who took possessions of the
mathematical data produced by Brahe. He advocated the
idea of heleo centric system
o
He is significant because, it was him who used
Brahe’s mathematical findings to actually portray motion,
that is the path of the planet.

New Directions in Thought
 Galileo Galilei
o
it was him, who first turned a telescope on the
heavens.

 His significance was that, his new found evidence
would go against the Aristotle and the bible concept of
the earth centered system. By doing this he
popularized the Copernican system, but also
articulated the concept of universal subject to
mathematical terms.
New Directions in Thought
 Isaac Newton
o
he addressed the issue of planetary motion that
the English man Isaac Newton addressed, and in doing
so established a basis for physic that endured more
than two centuries.
 He is important because, because his concept of
gravity and physics would be later used in the
scientific revolution.
New Directions in Thought
 Principia Mathematica
o
in this, he reasoned that the planet and all other
physical objects in the universe moved through
mutual attraction, o r gravity. In this, he believed that
the universe affected every other object through
gravity.
 The significance of this book is that it explain the
universe much better with more accuracy using math.
His scientific astronomy finding would become the
basis for the scientific revolution
New Directions in Thought
 Mechanism
o
it was the idea that new science sought to explain
the world in terms of mechanical metaphors, or the
language of machinery.

 The significance Is that, it made people understand
that the earth operated on a mechanical operations
New Directions in Thought
 Sir Francis Bacon
o
he was an Englishman of almost universal
accomplishment. He was regarded as the father of
empiricism and of experimentation in science.

 He is significant because he set the foundation for
setting an intellectual tone and helping create a
climate conductive to scientific work
New Directions in Thought
 Empiricism
o
is a theory, which holds that the origin of all
knowledge is sense experience. The term also refers to
the method of observation and experiment used in the
natural sciences.
o
This is significant because, scientist would start
to use this idea which make their work more accurate
and error free.
New Directions in Thought
 Novum Organum
o
this book was written by Francis Bacon in which
he attacked the scholastic belief that most truth had
already been discovered and required explanation, as
well as the scholastic reverence for authority in
intellectual life.
 This book in significant because it illustrates to us
how, scholastic thinkers spend too much attention to
tradition and to the knowledge of the ancients.
New Directions in Thought
 Rene Descartes
o
he was a gifted mathematician, who invented
analytic geometry. He also published his “discourse on
method.
 He is significant because he contributed on the idea of
scientific method that relied more on deductionreasoning from general principle to arrive at specific
facts-than empirical observation and induction
New Directions in Thought
 Inductive Reasoning
o
was the idea which was suggested by Descartes in
which scientists believed that generalizations derived
from and test hypotheses against empirical
observations.
o
It is significant because, it totally suggest that
new ideas were being contributed to the scientific
realm.
New Directions in Thought
 Thomas Hobbes
o
he was a philosopher who wrote the “Leviathan,”
in which he stressed on a strong central political
authority. He portrayed human beings as and society
in a thoroughly materialistic and mechanical way. He
also regarded human as having and evil nature.
 He is significant because he contributes to the political
system at this time, by suggesting that an autocratic
government is better than a liberalized democratic
system
New Directions in Thought
 William Harvey
o
he was famous for his discovery of the circulation
of blood through the body.
 He is significant because his scientific findings further
contributes to the scientific realm and in other way
would make doctors understand how the body works
New Directions in Thought
 John Locke
o
he rejected arguments for absolute government
that based political authority on the patriarchal model
of fathers ruling over a family. He is also famous for the
idea that people are born with tabula rasa- the concept
of our surrounding making us who we are.

 He is significant because, his writings became a major
source of criticism of absolutism and provided a
foundation for later liberal political philosophy in both
Europe and America
New Directions in Thought
 Margret Cavendish
o
she made a great contribution to the scientific
realm,. She quarreled with the ideas of Descartes and
Hobbes, and also criticized the royal society for being
more interested in novel scientific instruments.
 She is significant because she opened the door for
women to enter the scientific realm. Furthermore, she
was the only woman who was allowed into the royal
society of London
New Directions in Thought
 “Dialogue on the Two Chief World Systems”
 was a 1632 book by Galileo, comparing the Copernican
system, and the traditional Ptolemaic system.
 It is significant because, In the Copernican system the
Earth and other planets orbit the Sun, while in the
Ptolemaic system everything in the Universe circles
around the Earth,. By doing this we further
understand Copernicus theory of Heleo-centricm.
New Directions in Thought
 Blaise Pascal
o
he was a French mathematician, who took it
upon himself to unite Faith and the new science. He
believed that in religious matters, only the reasons of
the heart and a leap of faith could prevail.
 He is of great importance because; he worked hard to
strengthen religious beliefs.
New Directions in Thought
 Witch Hunts
o
Witch-hunts, especially in Europe, resulted in
the trial, torture, and execution of tens of thousands of
victims, about three-quarters of whom were women.
They were believed to have sexual relations in their
meetings with the devil.
o
This is significant because, it shows how, women
were always the targets for anything evil and how
women held low status in their society.
New Directions in Thought
 Baroque Art
o
it covers a variety of related styles that developed
during the century and moved to different directions
in different countries. Baroque painters depicted their
subjects in a thoroughly naturalist, rather than an
idealistic way.
 It is significant, because it shows how every era had
different arts. In the renaissance, their art were based
upon the glorification of human, but in this it is based
on nature.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Peerage
·
it is a system in the British state, whereby, only
the elder son inherit a title of nobility.
·
This system is significant because, it shows u,
how Britain was far more a constitutional monarchy
state, yet there were laws that gave certain people more
advantage.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Nobles of the Sword
·
their nobility derived from the military
·
These nobles were significant because, it shows
how there were all types of nobles in France and as a
result of these nobles, the peasants were the ones
being taxed the most.

Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Nobles of the Robe
 · they were the nobles in France, which had either
served in the bureaucracy, or by having purchased
them.
 · this is significant because, it shows how if one was
rich in the middle ages can buy his way into becoming
a noble. It shows how the political system in France
was corrupted.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Vingtieme
·
it was some sought of income tax that the nobles
in France had to pay to the king, yet they rarely had to
pay it in full
 This is significant because, although the nobles in
France had to pay something, but it was nothing
compared to what the Peasants were paying
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Banalities
·
it was certain feudal dues in France, in which all
French peasants were subjected to.
 This is significant because, we now see how the
peasants in France were really suffering. On top of
their regular payment of the Talle and Covee, they had
to pay this as well. It is no wonder that they would
eventually revolt.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Robot
·
it was a law in the law in Habsburg lands, which
required the serfs to provide service to the lords.
·
This is significant because, we see how
everywhere we go the serfs are further treated as
people who continually provided for those higher than
them just because they poses a good family heritage.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Cift
·
this word was used in the Ottoman Empire
meaning the domain of the landlords.
·
This is significant because, we can see how
everywhere in Europe, whether the East or the West,
Landlords had privileges.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Pugachev’s Rebellion
·
it was a peasant revolt in Russia, which was came
about when Emelyan Pugachev, promised the serfs
land of their own and freedom from their lords. All
the southern land was in brutality, until the
government suppressed it.
·
This is significant because it shows how the
peasants are really thirsty for their liberation, yet the
nobles are refusing to do so.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Neolocalism
·
it was a practice in which the young men and
women who had left home would eventually marry
and form their own independent households.
·
This is significant since, there was so much
poverty so the parents would rather pushed their
young men or women top marry so that they can
support each other.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Agricultural Revolution
·
it was a series of innovations in farm production.
·
This is significant because it became the
foundation which would bring about the industrial
revolution. Also there were new inventions that
improved on agriculture.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Jethro Tull
·
he came up with the idea of using iron plows to
turn the earth more deeply and planting wheat by a
drill rather than by just casting seeds.
·
He is important because his ideas and efforts
contributed a whole lot on revolutionizing agriculture.
Due to him the lands were able to be cultivated for
longer periods of time.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Charles Townsend
·
he learned from the Dutch how to cultivate sandy
soil with fertilizers. He also instituted crop rotation,
using wheat, turnips, barley, and clover.
 This is significant because, this new system replaced
the fallow field with one sown with a crop that both
restored nutrients to the soil and supplied animal
fodder.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Enclosure
·
it was a policy made by the landlords to use land
more rationally and to achieve greater commercial
profits. The process involved the fencing of common
lands, the reclamation of previously untilled waste,
and transformation of strips into block fields.
 This is important because, it brought turmoil into the
countryside. It had displaced many of the peasants
from their lands which to urbanization.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Putting Out System
·
it was under this system that the agents of Urban
textile merchants took wool or other unfinished fibers
to the homes of peasants, who spun it into thread. The
agent then transported the thread to other peasants,
who wove it into finished products.
·
This is significant because it was the basic feature
of family economy and would continue for a while
before the inventions of machines that could take
place.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Spinning Jenny
·
in 1765, James Hargreaves, invented this machine,
which initially allowed 16 spindles of thread to be
spun, but by the close of the century, it could operate
120 spindles.
 This is significant because it increased the paste in
which products were going to be made.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Water Frame
·
it was a water powered device that designed to
permit the production of a purely cotton fabric, rather
than a cotton fabric containing linen fiber for
durability.
·
It is significant because this invention took textile
manufacture out of the home and put it into the
factory.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 James Watt
·
he perfected the late century stem engine in 1769,
to run textile machinery.
 He is significant because his invention allowed
factories to be easily located in or near urban centers.
Furthermore, the steam engine not only vastly
increased
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Urbanization
·
this was the time in the time in the 18th century
that there was a considerable growth of towns. This
happened as a result of peasants moving from the
countryside to the urban side in search of jobs.
·
It is significant because, this would make the
industrialization possible and at the same time would
contribute to many epidemics that would come along.
Society and Economy under the Ancien’ Regime
 Ghetto
·
it was a distinct districts of the Jews set aside by
the governments.
·
It is significant because it tells us how Jews were
separated from society and were deemed as inferior
and subhuman. It no wonder that they were
exterminated during the Nazi regime.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 Mercantilism
 an economic system which was created during the
eighteenth century age of Imperialism.
 Under this system, governments heavily regulated
trade and commerce in hope of increasing national
wealth. This system was believed to be necessary to
gain a favorable balance of trade of precious metals
such as gold and silver.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 Audiencias
 this was a division of colonial government officers who
were separated into subordinate judicial councils.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 Corregidores:
 the most important of the audiencias, they presided
over municipal councils.
 All of these officers represented a vast array of
patronage usually bestowed upon by the Spanish
monarch.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 Phillip V
 A Spanish monarch of the Bourbon family who
retained Spain and the Spanish empire in America
after it was partitioned due to the Spanish War of
Succession (1701-1713).
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 Charles III
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 Penninsularies
 persons born in Spain who journeyed to the New
World to fill new posts which were considered to be
the most profitable jobs in the region.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 Creoles
 people of European descent born in the Spanish
colonies, these people resented the penninsularies for
their privilege and high posts.
 As a result, this resentment would provide a major
source of the discontent which would lead to the wars
of independence during the early nineteenth century.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 Seasoning
 a process in which newly arrived African slaves would
receive new names; acquire new work skills, and
relatively learning local European language.
 Generally, North American plantation owners were
only willing to purchase recently arrived Africans
seasoned within the West Indies.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 The War of Jenkins Ear
 this war was provoked by the cutting of the ear of an English
captain, Robert Jenkins, at the hands of Spaniards in 1731.
 A precedent to this was growing trade rivalry between Britain
and Spain within the West Indies. This event was displayed to
the British Parliament as an example of the Spanish atrocities
towards British merchants. Although this was considered to be a
minor event, it paved the way for war between Spain and Britain
in 1793. In addition, the War of Jenkins ear also resulted in a
series of wars which would be fought across the world until 1815.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 The War of the Austrian Succession
 In December of 1740 King Frederick II of Prussia seized the Austrian province of Silesia.
This invasion breached the clauses of the Pragmatic Sanction and upset the current
European balance of power. Within this conflict was also a larger conflict between
Austria and France. Cardinal Fleury, first minister of Louis XV supported the Prussian
aggression against Austria, a long time enemy of France. However, this move brought
Britain into the war against France. The British were determined to have the Low
Countries remain in the hands of Austria rather than France; ultimately, this FrenchBritish conflict expanded beyond European borders and into the New World.

As a result, French military and economic resources were depleted, France did not have
enough power to support its colonial struggle, and France lost its conflict with Great
Britain. The War ended with the Treaty of Aix-la Chappelle (1748). Prussia retained
Silesia, and Britain was given a renewed privilege of importing slaves into the Spanish
colonies.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 The Diplomatic Revolution
 Austria sought to regain Silesia since it was an
important source of coal and iron. Monarch, Queen
Maria Theresa of Austria persuaded Louise XV of
France to aid Austria in a war with Prussia to regain
Silesia despite their traditional hostility towards each
other. T
 his new Franco-Austro alliance was called the
Diplomatic Revolution.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 George II
 British monarch who ruled from 1727 to 1760 and was
also the Elector of Hanover in Germany.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 The Seven Years War
 This global conflict began with Frederick II’s invasion of Saxony in
August of 1756. This invasion created a hostile alliance which between
France and Austria who wanted the destruction of Prussia. Swededn,
Russia, and many other smaller German states joined this alliance as
well.
 This war had been a vast conflict which killed and wounded thousands
of soldiers and sailors. As a result, the Habsburg empire now depended
largely upon the Hungarian domains, France was no longer a great
colonial power, In North America, the British and the Americans were
now responsible for organizing new territories. Financially, every power
had to increase its revenues in order to repay war debts, the financial
burdens weighed heavily upon rulers. And In France, many were
convinced for a need of administrative reforms after its defeat.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 William Pitt
 British secretary of state who was in charge of Britain’s
part in the Seven Years’ War, Pitt was considered to be
the “military genius” responsible for the British
victories within the war.
Transatlantic Economy, Trade Wars and Colonial
Rebellion
 Treaty of Paris (1763)
 under this treaty, Britain received all of Canada, the
Ohio River Valley, and the eastern half of the
Mississippi River.
 Britain also returned Pondicherry and Chandernagore
in India and the West Indian sugar islands of
Guadeloupe and Martinique to the French.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Isaac Newton
 A major intellectual forerunner of the Enlightenment.
 Newton law of universal gravitation and ideology of
mechanical and mathematical rationality in the
physical world influenced society to be organized
more rationally.
The Age of Enlightenment
 John Locke
 Explained human psychology and believed humans
entered the world a Tabula Rasa- or blank page. He
implied that human nature was dynamic and
experience shapes a character.
 Like Immanuel Kant he urged human beings to take
charge of their own destiny and better their lives
without waiting for the grace of God.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Print Culture
 A culture in which books, journals, and newspapers
achieved their own status influencing the intellectual
and religious movements; it also challenged the
government during the enlightenment in which public
opinion developed.
 Because of the print culture there was an increase in
freedom of press. Public opinion prevented the
governments from operating privately.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Philosophes
 Were the leading writers and critics of the
enlightenment who favored change, reform, and
toleration.
 They desired reforming religion, society, political
thought, government, and the economy. They applied
reason, criticism, and common sense to all
institutions.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Voltaire
 Like Montesquieu, Voltaire admired the British form
of government, science, economic prosperity, intellect,
and religious climate.
 His famous slogan was “Crush the infamous thing”
regarding the church. In his 1759 satirical novel,
Candide he attacked government, religious
persecution, and philosophy of the Enlightenment.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Deism
 An idea, and form of belief, believed by most
Philosophes that life of religion and reason can be
combined a religion without fanaticism and
intolerance with the belief that God was rational
because nature was rational.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Toleration
 Toleration was permitted to all except Roman
Catholics and Unitarians in Britain were relative
freedom of press and free speech prevailed.
 There was a call for toleration of all religions not just
Christianity the basis being that life on earth and
human relationships should not be subordinated to
religious zeal that allows one group people to
persecute another group.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Baruch Spinoza
 A Jewish writer who debated over religion and the
place of Jews in European life.
 He believes God was not a distinct personality and
wanted Jews and Christians to use their own reason on
religious.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Theological-Political Treatise
·
Produced by Spinoza in 1670 it directly
anticipated much of the religious criticism of the
Enlightenment and its attacks on power of
superstition.
 It called for both Christians and Jews to use their own
reason in religious matters.
The Age of Enlightenment
 The Encyclopedia
·
A major part of the print culture that was a
collective text that included critical ideas on religion,
government, and philosophy during the
enlightenment.
 Focusing more on secular realms of nature rather the
religious realm, the encyclopedia also contained
articles on building and other dimensions that made it
an important source of knowledge.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Denis Diderot
 a famous Philosophe who along with d’ Alembert
helped to publish the first volume of the Encyclopedia.
 He included illustration of machinery and working
people and was hostile to slavery.
The Age of Enlightenment
 d’Alembert
 a participant of the Enlightenment who helped to
publish the first volume of the Encyclopedia which
appeared in 1751.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Physiocrats
 Economic Enlightenment thinkers who believed that
the primary goal of the government was to protect
property and also believed it was agriculture that the
economy depended.
 These thinkers supported an economy that was not
regulated by government.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Adam Smith
 a major forerunner in the enlightenment that caused
natural philosophers to believe that traditions of
thought inherited from medieval Christian worlds
were incorrect and needed to be challenged.
 Smith also published the Wealth of Nations. Used
empirical support for general laws allowing Europeans
to believe there was much undiscovered. Supported a
economy based on
The Age of Enlightenment
 Four Stage Theory
 A theory regarding human social and economic
development created by Adam Smith, according to
this, human societies were classified as hunting and
gathering, pastoral or herding, agricultural, and
commercial.
 Europeans found themselves at the highest level of
society and found other societies inferior to them and
this encouraged them to expand and dominate. This
theory was a form of support for imperialism and
expansion during the nineteenth century.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Laissez-Faire Economics
 the ideal free economy, not regulated by government,
conjured by Adam Smith, in which individuals
pursued their own selfish economic interests in order
to encourage economic growth.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Montesquieu
 A French noble Philosophe who published the Spirit of
the Laws. He proposed a government based on checks
and balanced and a limited monarchy.
 Like many other Philosophes he admired the English
government and how it operates. It was his book, Spirit
of the Laws in which the United States constitution is
modeled after. His proposed form of government has
influenced other governments within Europe and
other places around the world.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Spirit of the Laws
The Age of Enlightenment
 Jean-Jacques Rousseau
 Proposed the Social Contract as the best possible
government able to overcome evils of politics and
society.
 Rousseau was considered to be the most unusual
philosophe and different of the Enlightenment
movement. In The Social Contract Rousseau proposes
a government which all citizens divest themselves of
the rights to the government, collectively they will act
as “the Sovereign” while under a communal
government.
The Age of Enlightenment
 The Social Contract
 Proposed by Rousseau, the Social Contract is the best
possible government able to overcome evils of politics
and society.
 Rousseau was considered to be the most unusual
philosophe and different of the Enlightenment
movement. In The Social Contract Rousseau proposes
a government which all citizens divest themselves of
the rights to the government, collectively they will act
as “the Sovereign” while under a communal
government.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Emile
 Published by Rousseau in 1762 is a novel about
education.
 In which Rousseau also made the argument of distinct
social roles for men and women and occupation of
separate spheres, portraying women as fundamentally
subordinate to men.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Mary Wollstonecraft
 Defended womens’ role in society while arguing that
separating women into their domestic spheres and
withholding traditional roles only made women slaves
to men. According to her denying women a good
education would only hamper progress in humanity.
 Her famous works included A Vindication of the
Rights of Woman; this book rejects the ideas presented
by Rousseau in his Emile.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Rococo
 Style that embraced lavish lighthearted decorations
which originated in France and became associated
with the aristocracies of the Old Regime.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Neoclassical
 Embodied a return to figurative and architectural
models drawn from the renaissance and the ancient
world and portrayed ancient republican values.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Enlightened Absolutism
 Absolute monarchs who have a sound and open-
minded understanding of enlightened ideas of the
Philosophes.
 Enlightened monarchs supported the Philosophes
and imposed many of their ideas into their
government and society.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Frederick the Great
 An enlightened monarch who expressed religious
toleration, and rationalized his existing legal system.
 He promoted a noble through merit to in order to
stress skill and loyalty as well as established academic
institutions
The Age of Enlightenment
 Joseph II
 An enlightened monarch who like Frederick the Great
of Prussia improved the economic life by encouraging
road building.
 He was the son of Maria Theresa and favored a policy
of religious toleration. Under the influence of the
Enlightenment, he granted Jews private worship to
Jews but did not give them full equality. He put the
Roman Catholic Church under royal control.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Catherine the Great
 An enlightened monarch who sought to westernize
Russia establishing major reforms.
 She strongly supported the nobles and gave them wide
privileges while putting limited reforms on her own
authority. She established an economic policy and
sought to expand Russia.
The Age of Enlightenment
 Partition of Poland
 a division of Poland that demonstrated that any nation
underdeveloped could no longer compete within the
European state system.
 It also demonstrated that the major powers in Eastern
Europe were prepared to settle their own rivalries at
the expense of a weak state such as Poland.
The French Revolution
 Rene Maupeou
 Chancellor appointed by Louis XV in 1770.
 -Abolished Parlements and attempted to increase the
amount of taxes paid by the aristocracy.
The French Revolution
 Jacques Necker
 The royal director and general of finances under Louis
XVI.
 -Released the Necker report that incriminated the
aristocracy and suggested that France’s economic
situation was not as bad as it appeared.
The French Revolution
 Alexandre de Calonne
 Minister of finance who succeeded Necker in 1786.
 -He tried to introduce taxes that would transcend
social status as well as making the corvee into a
monetary payment.
The French Revolution
 Parlements
 Local governing bodies in France that attempted to
represent public opinion.
 -The Parlement of Paris refused to collect taxes that
the Estates General imposed on the people.
The French Revolution
 “What is the Third Estate?”
 A pamphlet by Abbe Sieyes that gave his explanation
of what the Third Estate represented.
 -Sieyes states that the Third Estate is
underrepresented and wants to become something.
The French Revolution
 “Doubling the Third”
 The decision by the royal council to double the
amount of those elected to the Third Estate.
 -This confirmed that the interests of the third estate
were somewhat central to the politics of the time.
The French Revolution
 Cahiers de doleances
 Lists of grievances presented by the representatives to
the king.
 -Much of the unrest and discontent toward the royalty
on the eve of the revolution was documented by these
lists.
The French Revolution
 Estates General
 The assembly of the First, Second, and Third Estates of
France.
 -Central to the revolution was the underrepresentation of the Third Estate in the Estates
General.
The French Revolution
 National Assembly
 A legislative body that was formed by the members of
the Third Estate in 1789.
 -The Second Estate joined the assembly two days after
its formation to give it more political clout.
The French Revolution
 Tennis Court Oath
 An oath taken by the members of the National
Assembly to not leave the palace of Versailles until
France had constitution.
 -This was the first real event in which political
authority had come from the people instead of the
monarch.
The French Revolution
 Storming of the Bastille
 This was a revolt against a prison in France that held
political prisoners.
 -The storming of the Bastille was the first show of
violence in the revolution.
The French Revolution
 The Great Fear
 Terror and peasant disturbances that swept through
the countryside at the time of the revolution.
 -During this time, peasants seized land of aristocrats
who had fled, in what they saw as a retaking of land
that was rightfully theirs.
The French Revolution
 National Constituent Assembly
 The organization that was formed out of the national
assembly in June of 1789.
 -On August 4, several aristocrats from the National
Constituent Assembly renounced their feudal rights,
dues, and tithes.
The French Revolution
 Declaration of the Rights of Man
 A document issued by the National Assembly in
August 1789 that granted sovereignty to all French
people.
 -The declaration, which drew from the ideas of the
Enlightenment, showed the ideals of the
revolutionaries.
The French Revolution
 “Assignats”
 Government bonds issued by the Assembly that were
backed by confiscated church lands.
 -The bonds were the new currency, but their falling
prices resulted in inflation.
The French Revolution
 Civil Constitution of the Clergy
 A document issued by the National Assembly in July
1790 that broke the government’s ties with the Catholic
Church.
 -It angered the pope and church officials and turned
many Catholics in France against the revolution.
The French Revolution
 March to Versailles
 When 7000 Parisian women marched on Versailles
demanding bread.
 -The mob that went to Versailles forced the royal
family to come back to Paris with them.
The French Revolution
 Tulieres Palace
 The palace which the royal family lived in when they
returned to Paris.
 -The monarch had no choice but to return to Paris and
live in Tulieres Palace because of the anger of the
people over bread prices.
The French Revolution
 Chapiler Law
 This was a law against workers unions.
 -this was the attempt of the Assembly to keep workers
from protecting their wages.
The French Revolution
 Declaration of Pilnitz
 A promise to intervene in France on behalf of the
monarch issued by King Frederick William II and
Emperor Leopold II of Austria, as long as other
European powers agreed.
 -The declaration was useless because Great Britain
would not give its consent, but the revolutionaries
took it seriously.
The French Revolution
 "Departments“
 Administrative units that replaced provinces when the
National Assembly was reorganizing.
 -The creation of the departments was part of the
Assemblies push to reorganize France’s local and
judicial administration.
The French Revolution
 Constitution of 1791
 This was a constitution that established France as a
constitutional monarchy that was answerable to a
legislative assembly.
 -Under the new constitution, king Louis XVI could
only temporarily veto any bill that came.
The French Revolution
 Duke of Brunswick’s Declaration
 The leader of the Prussian troops’ declaration that if
the French royal family were harmed, he would
destroy Paris.
 -This statement increased support for war from within
France and heightened the mistrust for the king
The French Revolution
 The Paris Commune
 The legislative body of Paris made up of
representatives from different parts of the city.
 -The Paris Commune was an independent political
force whose goal was to protect the gains of the
revolution.
The French Revolution
 September Massacres
 This was when the Paris Commune murdered over a
thousand people who had been in the city jails.
 The executions had been an attempt to purge the
system of counterrevolutionaries but in fact, those
executed were mostly common criminals.
The French Revolution
 Edmund Burke’s (Denunciation of Revolution)
 Edmund Burke said that the reorganization of the
French political system could be blamed for acting too
rationally and not following the patterns of history.
 -Burke said that France would continue to be in
turmoil because of the lack of political experience of
those governing it.
The French Revolution
 Jacobins
 Represented the radical wing of representatives in the
National Convention.
 -Led by Robespierre, the Jacobins called for
democratic solutions to France’s problems and spoke
for the urban poor and French peasantry.
The French Revolution
 Girondists
 The moderate sector of the National Convention.
 -The Girondists controlled the legislative assembly
until 1793, when with the war going poorly and food
shortages hurting French peasants, the Jacobins came
to power.
The French Revolution
 sans-culottes
 Urban workers and peasants who wished to
distinguish themselves from the high classes.
 -The mob mentality of the sans-culottes represented
the most radical element of the Revolution.
The French Revolution
 The Mountain
 The extreme Jacobins who cooperated with the sans-
culottes.
 -They were termed thus because of the high up seats
in the assembly hall, and they worked together with
the sans culottes to further the revolution and win the
war.
The French Revolution
 Committee of Public Safety
 A body chaired by Robespierre which was given
dictatorial powers in 1793 in an attempt to deal with
France’s wars abroad and economic problems at home.
 The committee at first had an impressive war effort,
but things took a turn for the worse when Robespierre
began the violent Reign of Terror in late 1793.
The French Revolution
 “Republic of Virtue”
 The ideals of the country that Robespierre thought
were embodied by his new French republic for the first
time in history.
 -Robespierre felt that the general will had to overcome
the wants of the individual, and this is how he justified
the use of terror.
The French Revolution
 Maximilien Robespierre
 As chairman of the Committee of Public Safety,
Robespierre pursued a planned economy and vigorous
mobilization for war.
 -Robespierre grew increasingly paranoid about
counterrevolutionary opposition, and during the
Reign of Terror he attempted to silence all enemies of
the Revolution in an effort to save France from
invasion.
The French Revolution
 Levee en Masse
 The conscription of all French males into the army.
 -This was part of the war effort in 1792.
The French Revolution
 “enrages”
The French Revolution
 The Cult of Reason
 the “religion” of France during Robespierre’s attempts
at de-Christianization.
 -The abandonment of Christianity for reason is
illustrative of Robespierre and his justification of
terror as a tool abandoning ethics or politics.
The French Revolution
 The Thermidorian Reaction
 The post–Reign of Terror period starting with the
execution of Robespierre in July 1794 and the retaking
of moderate power over the French Revolution
The French Revolution
 The Directory
 The new executive branch established by the
constitution written during the Thermidorian
Reaction.
 -The Directory was appointed by the legislative
assembly. However, after election results proved
unfavorable to elements in the Directory, it overthrew
the assembly and maintained control over France.
Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Consulate
·
French Government dominated by Napoleon
from 1799 to 1804. The Consulate in effect ended the
revolution in France, by the Third Estate.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Concordat
 Agreement between Napoleon and Pope Pius VII. It
required the clergy to resign, and Bishops to receive
salaries from the state. The Concordat declared,
“Catholicism is the religion of the great majority of
French citizens
Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Napoleonic Code
 ·
Government system created by Napoleon after
the French Revolution. The Napoleonic Code had to
basic goals; to give France a legal system, and to
embody the values of liberty, brotherhood, and
equality.
Napoleon and Romanticism
 Peace of Amiens
·
A mere truce between France and Napoleon.
Napoleon’s army in Haiti aroused British fear.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 William Pitt
·
As Britain declared war with France, William Pitt
came to office as prime minister. William constructed
the Third Coalition against Napoleon.
Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Third Coalition
 With the assistance of William Pitt from Britain, it
brought Russia, and Austria to move against France.
Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Confederation of the Rhine
·
Napoleon brought all the princes from Germany
together. They were dismissed from the Holy Roman
Empire making Francis II Emperor of Austria.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 Treaty of Tilsit
·
Unable to fight another battle, Tsar Alexander I
from Russia, made peace with Napoleon. France
confirmed gains, and Prussia lost half its territory.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Continental System
·
Plan by Napoleon to cut off British trade with the
European continent. Napoleon’s goal was to defeat
Britain, but his only way to defeat it was by weakening
its economy and naval supremacy.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 Frederick William III
·
Ruled Prussia, and under his rule was the only
German state that showed any resistance against
Napoleon.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Wars of Liberation
·
Wars between Napoleon and Spain and Austria.
The wars of liberation drain French strength from
elsewhere in Europe.
Napoleon and Romanticism
 Battle of Leipzig
·
One of the most crucial battles of the Napoleonic
wars that took place in Leipzig. Napoleon and the
army of France were set to take on those of Sweden,
Russia, Austria, and Prussia, which led to the defeat of
Napoleon.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Congress of Vienna
·
With fears and hostility from Napoleon, Britain,
Austria, Russia, and Prussia formed a Quadruple
Alliance to preserve Europe. They agreed that no
single state would dominate Europe.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Hundred Days
 Napoleon returns from Alba, and takes control of
France. He rules for one Hundred days, until he is
officially defeated at the battle of Waterloo.
Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Quadruple Alliance
·
This alliance consisted of Russia, Austria, Prussia,
and Britain. These countries were the main influence
in the Congress of Vienna. They sought to keep a
balance of power in Europe.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 Romanticism
·
A reaction in early nineteenth century literature,
philosophy, and religion against what many
considered the excess rationality and science in
Enlightenment.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 Emile
·
Written novel by Jean Jacques Rousseau, on his
view on how the individual could develop to lead a
good and happy life uncorrupted by society.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 The Social Contract
·
Novel, also written by Roussea. He describes the
perfect society where all are equal. We start to see the
first signs of communism.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 Immanuel Kant
 Philosopher during Romanticism.
 Believed in categorical imperative; the sense of moral
duty or awareness possessed by all human beings.
Napoleon and Romanticism
 William Blake
·
A painter during Romanticism.
 His most famous painting is “Newton” showing nature
with science combined.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 Samuel Taylor Coleridge
 ·
Coleridge was the master of Gothic poems of the
supernatural, such as “The Rime of the Ancient
Mariner:
Napoleon and Romanticism
 William Wordsworth
·
A poet; most important work “Ode on
Intimations of Immortality.” He believed that
childhood was the bright period that all humans lost
in the process of maturation

Napoleon and Romanticism
 Lord Byron
·
A British Romantic writer, rejected old traditions
and championed the cause of personal liberty.
Important works: Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage, and Don
Juan.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 Johann Wolfgang Goethe
·
German writer, who made a reputation in love
novels. He made an emphasis on feelings and on living
outside the bounds of polite society. Famous work:
Faust.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 Faust
·
A long dramatic poem written by Johann
Wolfgang Goethe, which involves the human
development between evil and good.

Napoleon and Romanticism
 John Wesley
·

Was the founder of Methodism.
Napoleon and Romanticism
 Methodism
 ·
An English religious movement, begun by John
Wesley that stressed inward, heartfelt religion and
possibility of attaining Christian perfection in this life.
Napoleon and Romanticism
 Georg Wilhelm Hegel
·
Introduced the idea of thesis, antithesis, and
synthesis on how ideas develop. The thesis is the
dominant set of ideas. It is challenged by a set of
conflicting ideas, the antithesis. From the clash a new
pattern occurs named the synthesis.
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Carlsbad Decrees
 Decree proposed by Metternich that banned the
student associations (ex. the Burschenschaften). It also
put press censors into affect, which showed the
suppressing of liberalism.
 This demonstrates a response to the opposition of the
new conservative order. It shows how the protests and
voice of the people who were speaking out in favor of
reform were not recognized
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Burschenschaften
 This was a German student association who overall
sought for a unified Germany and spoke out against
the new order
 The student protesters took extreme measures when a
member Karl Sand assassinated a conservative
dramatist. German rulers were uneasy with this
association as their were some republicans in the
student clubs
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Lord Liverpool
 The ministry of Lord Liverpool focused on dealing
with protecting the interest of landowners and the
wealthy class
 Under the ministry, the Corn Laws were passed, which
kept high prices on grain, and replaced income tax
that only the wealthy paid with taxes that poor and
wealthy paid. This shows how the new conservative
order began to preserve rights and privileges of the
wealthy and ignore the poor
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Coercion Acts
 Temporarily suspended habeas corpus and extended
existing laws against rebellious gatherings
 This took away the voice of the people and any possible
opposition to the conservative power
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Peterloo Massacre
·
Radical reformers gathered at St. Peter’s Fields
where Royal troops had arrested, and injured many
when trying to ensure order in the crowd
·
This repression of the gathering showed the
difficulties faced by those who sought for change and
reform
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Six Acts
 A series of acts passed by the Parliament that can be
looked at as suppressing the voice of the reformers
 The six acts restricted large meetings, allowed officials
to search homes against people’s will, and overall it
wanted to prevent any challenges or opposition.
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 The Charter
 The constitution of Louis as her agreed to be a
constitutional monarch
 This led the people to believe a change was coming as
it offered religious toleration, and rights of the
Declaration of the Rights of Man
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Louis XVIII
 Came to power at a time when France had undergone
so much turmoil and wished for stability
 He agreed to a constitutional monarch to please the
people and leaned more toward restoring the rights
and privileges of the landowners and aristocrats
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 The Congress System
 The Quadruple alliance: Austria, Prussia, Russia,
Britain, sought to retain peace and prevent aggression
 The main goal of the Congress system was to prevent
France from rising as a major, powerful nation, and
wanted to uphold borders around France to do so
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 The Cortes
·
The Spanish Parliament
·
Significant in a sense that there was a new sense
of independence in Spain and it leaned more toward
liberalism with the Parliament
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Simon Bolivar
 Led military forces to free a portion of South America
 He liberated many lands such as Venezuela, and
advocated independence and a republic which gave
people a sense of nationalism
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 The Greek Revolt of 1821
·
Revolt in the Ottoman Empire supported by
France and Britain for their own betterment and
interests
·
This resulted in the independence of Greece
which would soon spark other minority desires for
freedom in the Ottoman Empire
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Treaty of Adrianople
·
Allowed Russia to gain territory in the Ottoman
Empire
·
This shows how the Russians pushed for Greek
independence only to further their own goals
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Serbian Independence
 Revolt against the Ottomans which resulted in success
 This can be looked at as a direct result of the recent
gained independence of the Greeks
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Toussaint L’Overture
 Former slave who led the rebellion in Haiti
 In alliance with France, he was able to fight the
Spanish and soon was able to impose an authoritarian
government constitution on Haiti
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Decembrist Revolt
 Rebellion of the Moscow Regiment in the army to
pledge their allegiance to tsar Alexandra I
 This showed the need for reform and a strong desire
for a constitutional government in Russia
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Alexander I
 Came to the throne in 1801 after leading a coup against
his father Tsar Paul
 He turned away from change and suppressed
liberalism and nationalism leaving no room for a
reform
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Nicholas I
 Turned his back on practically all reforms in Russia
 His reign consisted of repressing any form of
liberalism as there was a growing sense of Russian
Nationalists
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Charles X
·
Succeeded Louis XVIII
·
It leaned more towards a liberal state, as Charles
was just a little more sympathetic to change than
Nicholas
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Four Ordinances
 Restricted in a sense, freedom of speech
 It restricted press, and limited the franchise to only the
wealthiest
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Louis Phillipe
 Under Philippe, there was a better sense of liberalism
 He however, failed to sympathize with the working
class and meet their demands
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Great Reform Bill
 Became a law in 1832
 Offered a series of reforms under Philippe that
resulted in both economic and political changes
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Catholic Emancipation Act
·
Allowed Catholics in Ireland to be part of the
parliament
·
This was a more liberal measure passed for the
purpose of keeping order in Ireland
The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform
 Rotten Boroughs
 Boroughs that had the only few voters
 The goal was to replace rotten boroughs with
representatives for previously unrepresented
manufacturing districts and cities

Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Chartism
 Sought for political reform
 The six points of the Charter included a need for a
larger franchise, equal electoral districts, secret ballot
and other political reforms
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Thomas Malthus
 Writer that suggested nothing could improve the
conditions of the working class
 Wrote the Essay on the Principle of Population, which
proposed that the growing population, contributed
mostly by the working class, would outstrip the food
supply
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 David Ricardo
 Proposed the “iron law of wages”
 His theory included the idea that as long as the wages
increase, poor people will have more kids, who would
enter the working field, causing the wages to drop
again
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Zollverein
 Free trading union formed in all major German states,
expect Austria
 This would stop the internal tariffs in Germany and in
turn help economic growth
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Jeremy Bentham
 Bentham believed in the greatest good for the greatest
number (utilitarianism)
 He pushed for this idea to be applied to areas of the
government and the New House of Commons passed a
new Poor Law.
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Utilitarianism
 This was based on the idea of the greatest happiness
for the greatest number.
 This would now be put into a political aspect as it
would be regarded to judicial and other legal systems
for the overall good of the people
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Utopian Socialists
 Group of people who sought an ideal community and
also questioned the structures and values of capitalism
 The issue of sexuality and the family sparked debates
between most of these newly emerged groups
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Saint-Simonianism
 Socialist pioneer who believed that modern society
would need rational management
 He was concerned with his theory of what an ideal
government consisted of management by experts.
When he passed, his ideas sparked debate in later
societies that in the long run led to debates concerning
feminism
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Owensim
 He held the idea that if workers were put into the right
environment, they would succeed more.
 This was put into practice when workers were provided
with good working places, and children got an
education. There were also rewards given for good
work which gave the workers a better sense of
motivation
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Fourierism
·
Following the concept of Fourier, this ideology
proposed that the industrial order did not show the
passionate side of human nature
·
This theory would have encouraged the changing
of the work force. For instance, people would not be
held to doing only one kind of work for the same day
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Pierre Joseph Proudhon
·
Represented a strain of anarchism in a sense that
he called for betterment in the economy
·
He wrote “What is property” where he attacked
the banking system, for not extending credit to smallproperty owners. In the long run his ideas had later
influenced the French labor movement.
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Communist Manifesto
·
An ideology proposed a revolution of the working
class by Marx and Engels
 (Proletariat vs. the bourgeoisie)
·
From this idea that the working class would
spring a revolution, lead to more socialist views and
later even more support to the working classes
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Materialism
·
The preoccupation with the material world that
grew as more products and good grew
 This would lead to a greater demand for consumer
goods which will only increase the need for an
improved working order
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 The Second French Republic
 Consisted of a greater liberalists party that were
elected as workers called for a more provisional
government
 Within the new election, there was the elected Louis
Napoleon. The second Republic called for a sense of
betterment and reform
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Louis Napoleon
 Napoleon was interested more in himself than the
republican aspect of the nation
 He argued that he represented the will of the nation,
and not the people. He approved a constitution only to
consolidate his power
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Francois Guizot
 Guizot was a French academic politician, who served
Louis Philippe as minister of public instruction
 His government was soon overthrown in 1848
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 The Vienna Uprising
 Rebellion with the Magyars led by Kossuth who sought
to raise troops while there were other revolts occurring
 This had overall emboldened the Hungarians, who
also sought for independence
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Louis Kossuth
·
Kossuth was a Magyar nationalist who sought to
raise troops to fight for the Hungarian independence
 His leadership came about during other revolutionary
disturbances of 1848. He sought for independence in
the Ottoman Empire
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Pan-Slavic Congress
 This Congress came about as a result of nationalism, as
it called for the national equality of Slavs within the
Habsburg Empire
 Although is came to an end, it gave hope for an
independent state for the slavs.
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Pan-Slavic Congress
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 The Frankfurt Parliament
 Intended to write a more liberal constitution for a
unified Germany
 In general, the Parliament was a result of a desire for
unification, but however did not want to reach this
radically
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Grossdeutsch
 The larger of the German position favored Austrian’s
view for complete unification
 They did not wish for any exclusion which showed how
desperately there was a desire to be unified
Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
 Kleindeutsch
 Those of the smaller German solution which was to
have some excluded from unification
 Austria did not want to be completely unified and the
Kleindeutsch agreed with this. This lead Prussia to
look more towards Prussia instead of Austria
The Age of Nation States
 The Crimean War
•
The Crimean War was a result of Russia
wanting to extend its influence in the Ottoman
Empire because of their right to protect Orthodox
Christians there. France and Britain aided the
Ottoman Empire against Russia because of their own
naval interests there. Austria and Prussia remained
neutral.
 The war broke the Concert of Europe which strived to
stabilize international relations. It was also a period of
foreign policy.
The Age of Nation States
The Age of Nation States
 Camillo Cavour
•
Cavour was the prime minister of
Piedmont. He was a strong monarchist; hence, he
rejected a republic.
•
By Cavours strategic diplomacy he paved
the way to conquer Italy for Victor Emmanuel into a
nation-state.
The Age of Nation States
 “Risorgimento”
•
The nineteenth century movement for
the liberation and unification of Italy
•
Emphasizes the drive to build a nation
state by harboring support.
The Age of Nation States
 Piedmont-Sardinia
 Piedmont-Sardinia was in northwestern Italy. It was
the independent state on the peninsula.
 Piedmont was the leadership for the unification of
Italian states under Camillo Cavour.
The Age of Nation States
 Mazzini
 A nationalist leader who founded the Young Italy
society in order to drive Austria from the peninsula.
 As a Romantic Republican he strived to establish an
Italian Republic and unify Italy. He became the most
important nationalist leader in Europe.
The Age of Nation States
 Garibaldi
 He was the counterpart of Guiseppe Mazzini. They led
guerrilla warfare and insurrections.
 He was also a republican and strived to drive out
Austria to unify Italy.
The Age of Nation States
 William I
 King of Germany who first concern was to strengthen
the army after his brother went insane. He and
Parliament disagreed amongst each other for military
reform.

He made Bismarck his chancellor which would shape
German unification. He also put more emphasis to
round up support for the army.
The Age of Nation States
 Otto von Bismarck
 Bismarck was the prime minister of Prussia. His
diplomacy made him into the greatest power of
German states. He also brought Prussia together
against Austria.
 Bismarck unified Germany against the Liberal
Parliament by wars with Denmark and France. He also
paved the way for Germany to be a great power.
The Age of Nation States
 Danish War
 It was the war between Austria and Prussia against
Denmark for the duchies Schleswig-Holstein.
Denmark's parliament moved to make the duchies
part of Denmark but it was defeated. Austria and
Prussia as a result negotiated over ruling the duchies.
 The war increased Bismarck’s personal prestige and
strengthened his political hand over German affairs.
The Age of Nation States
 Schleswig Holstein
 · Two northern duchies that were never apart of
Denmark. Holstein was predominated by Germans
and belonged to the German Confederation.
 The duchies led to the Danish War of 1864 and as a
result led to Austria being in charge of Holstein and
Prussia in charge of Schleswig.
The Age of Nation States
 The Seven Weeks War
 It was the war between Austria and Prussia as a result
of the tensions over the administration of Schleswig
and Holstein. Bismarck claimed that the Austrians
violated the 1864 alliance and the Convention of
Gastein. It lead to the defeat of the Austrians.
 The Seven Weeks War excluded the Austrian
Habsburg from German affairs. Prussia also
established itself as the only major power among the
German states.
The Age of Nation States
 North German Confederation
 · All Germany north of the Main River went under
Prussian leadership. Each state retained its own local
government. The President was the King of Prussia
and the Chancellor was Bismarck. It had a legislature
that consisted of two houses: a federal council or
Bundesrat and a lower house or Reichstag.
 · The confederation put most of Germany into one
legislation, President and Chancellor to administer
laws and as a result unite the nation.
The Age of Nation States
 Ems Dispatch
 · The French government instructed the ambassador.
Benedetti, to ask William I for assurances he would not tolerate
any future Spanish candidacy for Leopold.. William rejected the
request. Bismarck, intent on provoking war with France, made
the kings report of the conversation public which he edited to
make war with France certain.
 · The dispatch led to a Franco-Prussian war. This emphasized
Bismarck's goal to complete Germans unification by war with
France, it also showed how Bismarck used his power to get his
way.
The Age of Nation States
 Paris Commune
 · A new municipal government elected by Parisians. It
intended to administer Paris separately from the rest
of France. Radicals and Socials participated in the
Commune.
 · Its suppression by the National Assembly showed
the triumph of a centralized nation-state instead of
having some areas of France run independently from
the rest which would lead to division.
The Age of Nation States
 The Dreyfus Affair
 A French military court found Captain Alfred Dreyfus a
Jew, guilty of passing secret information to the German
army. The evidence was forged. Liberals, Radicals, and
Socialists demanded a new trial for him which aided their
own public image.
 The affair divided France France because of the corruption
of the military and the Conservatives using false evidence
to protect themselves. Radicals, Socialists, Republicans and
Socialists formed an informal alliance as a result. AntiSemitism was also evidently seen in the affair.
The Age of Nation States
 Dual Monarchy
 It consisted of Austria-Hungary being brought
together.
 This showed the building of a nation by bringing two
states under a common monarch.
The Age of Nation States
 Compromise of 1867
 The Compromise also known as Ausgliech
transformed the Habsburg Empire into a dual
monarchy, Austria-Hungary. They shared a common
monarch, army, foreign relations and ministers; but
they were separate states by their parliaments.
 The Compromise brought unrest in nationalities who
opposed it because the Austrians and Hungarians
seemed to dominate other groups but amidst that two
states were brought together to become united.
The Age of Nation States
 Zemstivos
 A system of provincial and county councils organized
in 1864 to oversee local matters such as bridge and
road repair, education and agricultural improvement..
 Zemstivos gave the nobility a larger role in local
administration so that it can ease judicial discontent
but strive to bring about reform while maintaining the
status quo.
The Age of Nation States
 “Land and Freedom”
 The chief radical society of the revolutionary
movement known as Populism that sought a social
revolution based on the communal life of the Russian
peasants.
 The society educated the peasants by living with them
in the countryside, in order to inform the peasants of
their in the upcoming revolution against the tsarist
regime.
The Age of Nation States
 “The People’s Will”
 A segment of the Land and Freedom movement that
was dedicated to the overthrow of the autocracy.
 The members assassinated the Tsar, leading to a more
repressive autocratic government in Russia.
The Age of Nation States
 Second Reform Act 1867
 Introduced by Benjamin Disraeli . It expanded the
electorate beyond the limits the Liberals proposed.
 The act allowed for large numbers of male workingclass voters admitted to the electorate It also showed a
major step toward democracy by embracing the
working-class in politics.
The Age of Nation States
 Benjamin Disraeli
 Disraeli led the Conservative ministry in the House of
Commons in Britain. He introduced the Second
Reform Act Bill. Disraeli succeeded William Gladstone
as prime minister. He believed in paternalistic
legislation to protect the weak and ease class
antagonisms.
 Disraeli reaffirmed the duty of the state to interfere
with private property to protect health and physical
well-being by passing the Public Health Act and
Artisan Dwelling Act. He also put more emphasis on
the working-class.
The Age of Nation States
 William Gladstone
 Gladstone was the prime minister of Britain. He was
Liberal because of his support in free trade and the
repeal of the Corn Laws.
 Gladstone’s ministry saw the height of British
Liberalism by the reforms he made. He reinforced
loyalty to the nation by abolishing sources of
discontent.
The Age of Nation States
 William Gladstone
The Age of Nation States
 Ballot Act 1872
 Introduced voting by secret ballot.
 The Ballot Act removed corruption and abuses during
elections and in the government. It also showed a
sense of democracy.
The Age of Nation States
 Education Act of 1870
 The government assumed the responsibility for
establishing and running elementary schools.
 The Act permitted all able citizens to compete on the
grounds of ability and merit. Religious denominations
were also removed as a result.
The Age of Nation States
 The Irish Question
 Irish nationalists sought to achieve home rule for Ireland.
They wanted Irish control of local government without
Britain keeping a hold on it. The Irish Question remained
unanswered due to the division of the English political
parties. The only provision that was made was the
disestablishment of the Church of Ireland and the
Coercion Act that restored order and law to Ireland.
 The unanswered question showed Britain trying to keep a
hand on its possessions despite its move toward a
democratic state.
The Age of Nation States
 Charles Parnell
 The chief leader for the cause of Irish nationalism for
home rule. His program was Irish administration of
Irish domestic affairs while preserving a union with
England.
 Parnell gave an effort to home rule by establishing a
Irish Party despite its continuous failure.
The Building of European Supremacy
 Petit Bourgeoisie
 A term that refers to the lower middle class which
consisted of lower level bearcats, shop keepers, and other
professionals
 This group of people would ultimately set values and
goals for later years to come
The Building of European Supremacy
 The Cult of Domesticity
 The social distinction made between the home and the
work place. Home was to be a place of security and
serenity. Middle class women did not work if possible and
became limited to the role of mother and wife.
 This is significant because you a visible social decline in
the status of women where as earlier in the century women
use to help their husbands in the work place.
The Building of European Supremacy
 Millicent Fawcett
 (1847-1929) Led the Moderate National Union of
Women’s Suffrage Societies with liberal tactics in Britain.
She believed that women would only be recognized by
parliament if it were convinced that women would be
respectable and responsible in their political activity.
 She is important because she pioneered the women’s
suffrage movement in Britain.
The Building of European Supremacy
 Suffragettes
 Term for the followers of the Women’s Social and Political
Union in Britain. Founded by Emeline Pankhurst and her
two daughters in 1903, the group lobbied publicly and
privately for the hope of extending women’s suffrage but
by 1910, after having no government reaction, the women
resulted to violence and sabotage. By 1918 their efforts
were recognized and British women over 30 were granted
the right to vote.
 This is significant because they were able to gain women’s
suffrage in Britain
The Building of European Supremacy
 Zionism
 Jewish response launched in 1896 by Theodore Herzl
against anti- Semitism. The goal was to create a separate
Jewish state
 This is significant because this issue would later merge
into the middle eat conflict with the founding of Isreal
The Building of European Supremacy
 The First International
 Founded in 1864 by British and French trade unionist who
worked to better the working conditions. Dissolved in
1873
 Significant because it caused cohesion between socialist
parties.
The Building of European Supremacy
 Fabianism
 The most influential British socialist party that believed
gradual moves would lead to major social change
 This is significant because it show splits in the ideology of
the socialist party.
The Building of European Supremacy
 The Second International
 Founded in 1889, it worked to unify various national
socialist groups. It made French opportunism come to a
end forcing French socialist to form a single party.
 This is significant because they worked to end the split in
socialist parties and also caused hostility to non- socialist
governments.
The Building of European Supremacy
 SPD
 The German Social Democratic Party. Founded in 1874
by Ferinat Lasalle whose main goal was for workers to
participate in German Politics. The Party became split
between those who wanted reform and those who wanted
revolution, Bismarck repressed the party because he
feared that they would undermine politics and society
through pensions and insurance legislation.
 Significant because their work lead to Germany being the
first nation to enjoy a welfare program.
The Building of European Supremacy
 Erfurt Program
 1891- formulated by Kautsky and Bebel legislative
program that declared capitalism as a doom and the
necessity if socialist of ownership with the SPD attaining
such through political participation
The Building of European Supremacy
 Edward Bernstein and Revisionism
 Bernstein (1850-1932) questioned Marxist ideology and
its pessimistic view on society and the need for revolution
pointing out that the current condition had not met Marx’s
expectation. His doctrines became known as Revisionism
but his ideas were looked down upon.
 Significant because the path of socialism was called into
question
The Building of European Supremacy
 Sergi Witte
 (1849-1915) led Russia into the industrial Age favoring
heavy industry and put the currency at the gold standard
 Significant because he helped industrialize Russia and
maintain their status as a world power. However the
industrialization caused discontent among the land owners
The Building of European Supremacy
 Mir
 Communal farming. Peasants did not own their own land
but instead they farmed land communally.
 Significant because it proved insufficient sue to the
falling prices of grain and the price of taxed
The Building of European Supremacy
 Kulaks
 Prosperous peasant Farmers
 Significant because their wealth would be tested when
Stalin would try to collectivize.
The Building of European Supremacy
 Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov
 (1870-1924) chief disciple of leading Russian Marxist
Gregory Plekhonow. He later took the name of Lenin He
later became the leader of the Bolsheviks and later became
head of the Soviet Union.
 Significant because he put Russia on a socialist path.
The Building of European Supremacy
 What is to be Done?
 Written by Lenin in 1902 he condemned the German SPD,
trade unionism who settled for short term reform rather
than revolutionary change, and rejected the concept of a
mass democratic party composed of workers.
 This is significant because it outlined his ideology as a
leader
The Building of European Supremacy
 Bolsheviks
 Lead by Lenin, it was a sector of the Social Democratic
Party. They were the “majority” and they wants the party
to consist of elite professional revolutionaries who would
provide leadership for the working class.
 Significant because their ideals would end up structuring
Russia once they came into power.
The Building of European Supremacy
 Mensheviks
 The “minority” group of moderate democratic
revolutionaries. They wanted a party with mass
membership similar to that of the German SPD.
 Significant because the division represented a split in
ideology.
The Building of European Supremacy
 Revolution of 1905
 Due to the Failure of the Russo- Japanese War and the
mismanagement of the economy Revolution broke out. On
January 9, 1905 a group marched to the Winter Palace to
give the Tsar a list of grievances where troops then openly
fired on the demonstrators. From there general strike
broke out and by October Nicholas II issued the October
manifesto promising a constitution and extended civil
liberties.
 Significant because it showed just how unstable Russia
was.
The Building of European Supremacy
 October Manifesto
 Issued by Nicholas II which promised Russian
constitution
 Significant because it represented the turmoil of the
Russian State
The Building of European Supremacy
 Duma
 Representative body created by Nicholas II who
demanded revolutionary solutions to the countries
problems. By March 15,1917 they convince Nicholas to
abdicate the throne
 Significant because it left the Russian Government up for
grabs.
The Building of European Supremacy
 Nicholas II
 Ruled from 1894 until his abdication in 1917 proving
unable to manage a country in political turmoil or the
army in WWI. Him and his family were executed by the
Bolsheviks.
 Significant because we see the rise of Bolshevik policy to
power through Lenin.
The Building of European Supremacy
 P. A. Stolypin
 Replaced Witte as Prime Minister who set out to repress
rebellion threw land reforms and achieved upping the
economy.
 Significant because he influenced a better economic
system for Germany
The Building of European Supremacy
 Rasputin
·
(1917?-1916) A monk that had gained influence
amongst the Russian government because of his “power”
to heal the Tsars hemophilic son.
·
Significant because his influence would ultimately
be the last straw for Nicholas II reign.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 August Comte/Positivism
 August Comte was a leading ideologist of modern
European thought. He produced the theory of Positivism.
This theory stated that civilization went through three
stages. The world today was in it positive stage. There was
no longer a need for spiritual beings to explain things
because science had advanced.
 The significance of this theory was that it reduced a need
for church and religion. The people would no longer a
higher being to guide them because science had advanced.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Charles Darwin/Origin of the Species
 Charles Darwin was another thinker of modern European
thought. Darwin came up with natural selection, which stated
that humans had progressed physically over a long period of
time. Darwin stated this idea in his book Natural Selection.
 The importance of this theory was that it reduced a need for a
being that explained everything. People of that time knew that
humans being had evolved over a long period of time. There
was no longer a need for a God to explain everything for
people because they had an answer.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Social Darwinism
 Social Darwinism is the belief that the strong survive and
should thus dominate the weak.
 The significance of this concept is that it promoted
imperialism to the fullest. It gave people the right to take
over underdeveloped nations that could not compete with
them.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 T. H. Huxley
 Huxley was an opposed to the ideas of social Darwinism
that Herbert Spencer had created. He believed that
physical development was different from ethical
development. These were two different realms.
 Huxley’s opposition to Spencer’s idea of Social
Darwinism was that it promoted Christian morality.
Huxley’s ideas promoted Darwin’s natural selection ideals
rather than Spencer’s ideologies.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 David Strauss
 Strauss wrote a piece of literature called the life of Jesus
which questioned Christ’s existence as a true holy being or
just a figment of people’s imaginations that used Jesus as a
symbol for Christian values.
 The ideas of David Strauss were very crucial to modern
European thought because they renounced Christianity as
a whole. The idea made people lose faith in the church,
which overall reduced its power and status as a high
ranking entity.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Education Act
 The Education Act supported schools that were run by
states rather than schools that were religious.
 The significance of this act was that it gave states more
power than the church. It also signified the fact that the
state was consolidating its power in itself rather than let
the church retain great amounts of power.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Kulturkamph
 Kulturkamph mean cultural struggle. Bismarck who was
chancellor of Germany, secularized education and required
priest to pass state schools to get to their positions in the
church.
 Bismarck took these steps in order to protect Prussian
unity and he felt that the growing power of the Roman
Catholic Church in the Prussian government and the state
was a great enough power to foil his plan.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Syllabus of Errors
 This was when Pope Pius IX launched an attack on
modern European thought.
 The Pope launched this attack to preserve Catholicism and
its rightful position in the European world.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Rerum Novarum
 Pope Leo XIII formulated the Rerum Novarum which
defended private property, religious education, and
religious control of the marriage laws.
 These steps were taken to preserve Catholic traditions and
to make the Catholic Church known in the modern
European world. He did not want the church to be
forgotten or to be viewed as a negative entity.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Wilhelm Roentgen
 Roentgen published a paper X Rays which led to more
exploration into this new technology.
 This changed what physics was at the time. It changed key
concepts and ideas that were previously accepted.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Einstein/Relativity
 Albert Einstein formulated the idea of relativity in which
he stated that time and space where not two separate
entities but rather one whole thing. Also the measurement
of time and space depends on the observer rather than the
thing being measured.
 This theory was significant because it advanced physics
and the scientific world to the next level. It leads to further
research.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Heisenberg
 Werner Heisenberg stated that the behavior of subatomic
particles was based on probability rather than cause and
effect.
 The significance of this discovery was that it provided
scientists more research grants from the government to
achieve more advances in science. It also changed
everyday life.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Realism/Naturalism
 Realism and naturalism were both products past
ideologies. Both of these concepts condemned Romantic
thought and exposed the harsh realities of Bourgeoisie
life.
 These concepts were significant because it revealed the
harsh working conditions, it also rejected the fact that a
better life could exist.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Gustav Flaubert
 Flaubert was a realists and he wrote works such as Madam
Bovary which depicted the women in search of love. This
piece of literature depicted a life without heroism,
purpose, or even civility.
 This work is significant because it depicts realism to its
full extent. The writer rejects all romantic thought which
was a key accepted ideology of this point in time.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Emile Zola
 Emile Zola believed that absolute physical and
psychological determinism ruled human events in the way
it did in the physical world. He exposed the truth about of
life by showing bad things like prostitution.
 This was significant because it rejected previously
accepted ideas of life. It shattered Romantic thought and
eliminated any hope of a better world.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 George Bernard Shaw
 Shaw was another realist. He exposed middle class life by
showing that disease, in toleration of certain sexes existed.
He showed that life was not a colorful as it was depicted.
 Shaw was one of the many who held beliefs that were
against Romanticism.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Modernism
 Modernism like realism wanted to expose contemporary
middle class. However, modernism also wanted to change
the arts.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Virginia Woolf
 Woolf was part of the Bloomsbury Group which rejected
modern accepted views of morality. Woolf wrote a book
that showed how a group of people were trying to make it
into a world where the moral standard was accepted.
 This is important because it shows that ideologies dealing
with social life were changing. It shows that people were
going against the status quo of what was right and hat was
accepted.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Impressionism
 Many artists wanted to paint the landscape in different
light and colors and they wanted to paint these painting in
unfocused visual experiences.
 This was significant because it showed that the artistic
world had changed over a period of time. People’s
ideologies had changed and they wanted to express these
changes through their paintings.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Post-Impressionism
 Young artists drew up their artistic inspiration from past
impressionists. They tried to preserve the art of
impressionism.
 This was important because new forms of painting were
generated through impressionism such as pointillism.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Vincent Van-Gogh
 Van Gogh was a post impressionists and he painted works
of art that were worth more after his death. Van Gogh
lived a life of hardship which eventually leads to his
death.
 This is significant because it depicts post impressionism in
its entirety.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Friedrich Nietzsche
 Nietzsche was a man who opposed Christianity to the
fullest. He wanted to expose society and to denounce
democracy, nationalism, rationality, science and progress.
 His ideology was significant because he whole heartedly
denounced Christianity and morality. He went against the
accepted moral status and he also stated that that
Christianity took the spark out of life.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Sigmund Freud
 Freud believed that children had a sexual consciousness.
Freud also formulated that man had three parts to him, the
ID, the Ego, and the Superego.
 This is significant because it took away the possibility of
pureness and staying close to God. Since children
themselves had a sexual conscious which questioned
childhood innocence. The three parts of the human were
always in conflict with each other to gain control of the
whole human entity.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Carl Jung
 Jung formulated the idea of a soul as the collective
memories of the past generations in one human being.
Jung believed that 20th century people were alienated from
these memories and this lacked a soul.
 This is important because Jung supported Romanticism
which was a belief that was highly rejected at this point in
time by many modern thinkers.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Max Weber
 Weber believed that beau racy was an important facet of
life. He felt that modern Europe could not exist without
bureaucracy.
 This is important because Weber opposed Karl Marx’s
ideas of a communist society were a world wide
proletariat uprising would occur.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Arthur Gobineau
 Gobineau believed that the troubles of modern Europe
were the cause of the disintegration of the pure race of
Aryans. The inter racial marriages diluted the pure race.
 This is important because future leaders like Hitler
followed Gobineau’s ideas and used them to purge
millions of Jews during WW II.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Stewart Chamberlain
 Chamberlain believed that through genetics the human
race could be improved and that even a superior race
could be formulated.
 This is important because it fed people with the thought of
racism. Which led nations to believe that they were
racially superior to other races?
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Anti-Semitism
 Anti-Semitism is the hatred of Jews which has reigned
ever since the Middle Ages.
 This is significant because it supports Hitler’s purge
against the Jews.
The Birth of Modern European Thought
 Theodore Herzl/Zionism
 Herzl was a person who tolerated Jews. He wanted to
create an independent state where Jews could live.
 This is significant because it’s a step to Jewish toleration
and a way to have a solution to the Jewish question.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Scramble for Africa
 Occurred between late 1870's and about 1900. European countries
wished to extract raw materials from Africa. In their quest to extract
raw materials, European countries sought to control African territories.
Out of this led to political and economic competition among European
states, thus every part of Africa was carved out for a European nation to
control.
 This is very important because European intrusion into Africa led to
globalization of the world economy. However, European control led to
new social classes emerging and political structures that would
continue to last into African countries after their independence from
European states control.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Three Emperor’s League
 This was an alliance between Germany, Austria, and
Russia in 1873.
 This is very important because it shows Germany’s
Chancellor Otto von Bismarck understand the need
for peace and cooperation between the participating
countries in the treaty. Bismarck’s goal was to alienate
France from becoming allied with either Russia or
Austria, in any event which would not require
Germany to have to fight a war on two fronts.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 The Congress of Berlin
 Was a conference of European Nations including Britain, Austria,
Russia, and Germany in 1878. Bismarck of Germany decided to be the
moderator of the conference. This is important because he wanted to
avoid a war in which Germany would get drawn into, which would
possibly jeopardize the German Empire.

 At the conclusion of the Congress of Berlin, Bulgaria was reduced to
2/3 and denied access to Aegean Sea. Austria was given authority to
administer provinces of Bosnia & Herzegovina. Britain was given Cyrus
and France received Tunisia. This was all in response to the gains Russia
made when it invaded Ottoman Turkey Empire.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Dual Alliance
 Was an alliance between Germany and Austria in 1879.
Bismarck feared war with Russia. He wanted Austrian
support in the event Russia was supposed to attack
Germany. Also an agreement in which Austria was to
remain neutral if attack by another country besides
Russia.
 This is important because it established peaceful
cooperation between Germany and Austria and it
meant that France was still alienated from forming an
alliance with Austria and Russia.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Triple Alliance
 Was an alliance between Germany, Austria, and Italy
in 1882. Italy joined with Germany and Austria because
it was fearful of France growing power and resented its
acquisition of Tunisia.
 This is significant because this alliance continue to
undermine France position on the international scene.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 William II
 In 1888, William II came to the German throne, he was the
Kaiser.
 This was significant because this change in German leadership
undermine Bismarck’s plans to keep relations with Austria and
Russia on a good footing and to continue to alienate France from
the international scene. However, Kaiser William II had
aspirations for Germany to be like Great Britain.
 This policy would eventually alienate Russia which will make it
seek an alliance with France. Thus France became a major player
on the international scene and the prospect of Germany fighting
a war on both fronts became a reality.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Franco-Prussian Alliance
 Was an alliance between France and Russia in 1894. It
was defensive alliance against Germany.
 This is important because that means war on
Germany’s two fronts was now a possible danger and
Germany’s aspiration to be like Britain navy is driving
Britain to be allied with France.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 The Entente Cordiale
 Was an alliance between Britain and France. It was
without military provision and settled all colonial
differences.
 This was very significant because this now meant that
Britain and France were allied, and France was allied
with Russia. Thus Germany’s only reliable ally was
Austria.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 The First Moroccan Crisis
 It was between Germany and Britain in March 1905.
Kaiser William II favored Moroccan Independence and
implied Germany had a right to participate in Morocco
destiny. Germany’s main goal was to gain colonial
concessions.
 This is significant because it made Britain more alert
towards Germany who it viewed as an antagonist
towards its naval power and made Britain closer with
France. Germany was also testing France military
strength.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 The Second Moroccan Crisis
 It was another high tension conflict between France and Germany in
1911. It started when France sent an army to Morocco and Germany
turned this into an excuse to send German gunboats in order to protect
alleged German interest in Morocco and possibly to extort colonial
concessions in French Congo. Britain became alert because they
believed Germans wanted to create a naval base which would endanger
them.
 As a result, this crisis is important because its show Germany’s bold
and courageous moves, which was said to rival Britain naval supremacy.
Britain’s fear of growing German naval power led them to be even more
dependent on France concerning foreign policy and vice versa with
France being dependent on Britain in terms of foreign policy.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Bosnian Crisis
 The Bosnian Crisis of 1908 involved Austria, Turkey, Britain, France and
Germany. When the Young Turks took over in the Ottoman Empire,
Austria and Russia saw the opportunity to rise up. Austria wanted to
annex Bosnia and Herzegovina with Russia support in return for their
support of opening the Dardanelles to Russian warships. However,
Austria called for annexation before Russia could mobilize its troops.
Britain and France refuse to open the Dardanelles to Russian ships
which frustrated them. Germany was furious with Austria acting
without consulting them, which could have drawn them into war.
 This crisis just shows the importance of keeping the Ottoman Empire
strong to keep Russia from expanding its territories which could
endanger France and Britain.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 War in the Balkans
 Italy wanted to be recognized among the Great powers. In 1911, it attacked the
Ottoman Empire and gain control over Libya and the Dodecanese Islands in
the Aegean. It was a move to stop French expansion which Italy feared would
harm them. Italy’s victory convinced the Balkan states of Bulgaria, Greece,
Montenegro, and Serbia to attack the Ottoman Empire in 1912. The Balkan
states won and were indecisive on how to split Macedonia between them. A
second war in 1913 placed the Turks, Romania, Serbia, and Montenegro against
Bulgaria, in which they stripped away its gained territory.
 This crisis is significant because the Austrians were determined to prevent the
Serbs from gaining access to the Adriatic Sea which could harm them in the
near future. Russia on the other hand backed the Serbs. Thus tensions build up
between Serbia and Austria. At this point Austria was already prepared to go to
war with Serbia, who it felt humiliated them by announcing their demands
publicly.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Archduke Franz Ferdinand
 On June 28, 1914 Archduke Francis Ferdinand, heir to the
Austrian throne was assassinated by a Serbian nationalist in
Bosnia capital of Sarajevo. Austria believed that it was an inside
job by the Serbian government and that Serbia did not provide
adequate security to prevent the assassination.
 This was significant because Austria was now faced with a
decision on whether to attack Serbia or not. Germany realized
this would spark a war in which Russia would surely back Russia
and the Triple Entente would come into effect. In any event,
World War I was unraveling fast.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 “The Blank Check”
 With Austria contemplating war against Serbia which
would surely make Russia become involved; this was
Germany’s chance to prove their alliance with Austria,
for it was often said they only promised Austria
support but didn’t seem to back it up.
 This was a very important issue because Germany
didn’t really want war, for it thought Austria-Hungary
was too weak an ally but at the same time did not want
to appear soft which would alienate its only known ally
at the time
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 The Schlieffen Plan
 With war on the brink, Germany’s war strategy depended
on Count Alfred von Schlieffen, chief of the German
general staff from 1881-1906. This plan included a quick,
swift attack on France in the west before Russian troops
could properly mobilize in order for Germany not to fight a
war on two fronts.
 This is significant because the plan included violating the
neutral country of Belgium which would definitely bring
Britain into the war on the French and Russian side, in
which Germany did not wish to do.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Provisional Government
 In March 1917, strikes and workers demonstrations
erupted across Petrograd. The troops refuse to fire on
the people and the Tsar abdicated power on March
15th. This made the government fell into the hands of
the Duma, which set up a provisional government.
 This is significant because this is the stepping stone for
Lenin and the Bolsheviks rise to power.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Leon Trotsky
 He helped Lenin organized coup that overthrew
provisional government on November 6th in 1917.
 This is important because it shows that he was one of
the original Bolsheviks and he had more credibility
than Stalin when the party leadership was in mystery
after Lenin’s death
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 White Russians
 These were people who opposed the Bolshevik
Revolution. They continue to resist Red Russians, who
supported the revolution; they received help from
Allied powers.
 This is significant because with Russia having
domestic turmoil, it would have an effect on the war in
which France and Britain would suffer. This would
mean not enough pressure is on Germany on the
Eastern Front.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Brest-Litovsk
 On March 1918, Russia accepted the Treaty of Brest-
Litovsk in which it yielded Poland, Finland, the Baltic
States, and Ukraine; the Bolsheviks also agreed to pay
a large war indemnity to Germany.
 This was significant because Lenin agreed to a high
price in an effort to bring about peace amid Russian
turmoil and in order for Bolsheviks to impose their
rule.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Fourteen Points
 American President Woodrow Wilson self-proclaimed fourteen points
were idealistic principles, including self determination for
nationalities, open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, disarmament, and
the establishment of the League of Nations to keep the peace.
 This was significant because many nationalities in Eastern Europe look
towards Wilson’s self determination policy to call for a homeland of
their own. Yet the problem was that all nationalities couldn’t possibly
get their own homeland. Thus new states like Yugoslavia were created
that large national groups were under control of another. Also the
League of Nations set the precedent for the United Nations and for
diplomacy as a way to solve issues among countries, but it failed to
keep the peace due to lack of armed forces.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Treaty of Versailles
 It was five separate treaties between the Allied Powers and Axis powers.
Formal sessions began on January 18th, 1919 and the last concluded on August
10, 1920. The treaty brought an end to the war and was proclaimed “A Peace
without Victors” by the Allied powers. It called for reduction of German army,
war reparations to be paid by Germany and its allies, establishment of League
of Nations, demilitarized zone between France and Germany, and many new
countries in Eastern Europe to create a balance of Power.
 This is significant because the treaty only made Germany more hostile towards
the Allied Powers. They felt that the treaty was dictated instead of negotiated
to them. Germany was forced to pay back almost all of the war reparations and
assumed responsibility for the war, which angered many Germans. This would
eventually become one of the Nazis platforms to create support from the
German people.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Mandates
 Mandates were territories that were legally administered under
the watch of the League of Nations. These mandates were carved
out of the territory that was once under the former Ottoman
Empire.
 This is significant because the mandates that France and Britain
carved out would put people together under new territories with
no historical background or cultural similarity. Thus tensions
would build up among different ethnic groups, in which the
European state usually favored the minority with new political
and social structures.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 The League of Nations
 It was created as part of the peace treaty to keep peace
among Nations that had disputes. It was to be a body of
sovereign states that agreed to consult in the common
interest, especially when war loomed; any country that did
not abide by its rules could face economic sanctions and
military intervention.
 This is significant because Germany and Soviet Union
denial to League of Nations did not follow its agenda of
fairness to all nations. Thus it made the Soviet Union and
Germany even more alienated from the rest of the world.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 Reparations
 As a part of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was forced to
pay for compensations to the Allied powers in regards to
damage of property and civilian population.
 This is significant because Germany resented this and
Adolph Hitler in the near future would come to power
using this as a way to unify German people. Many Germans
felt they were betrayed when they signed the treaty. They
believed it was unfair for them to pay back all the money
for damage inflicted by the war in which others had
participated in.
Imperialism, Alliances and War
 War Guilt Clause (231)
 The Allies inserted the war guilt clause into the treaty
that made Germany assume responsibility for the war.
 This is significant because Germany did not believe it
was solely responsible for the war. This was all done
without it being negotiated to them. They felt they
were dealt with unfairly and this feeling would
continue to linger on up to World War II.
Political Experiments of the 1920’s
 War Communism
 This was the take over of banks, peasant farms,
transportation systems, and heavy industry by the
Bolshevik government in Russia in order to aid the Red
Army.
 This was significant because it would allow the Red
Army to gain peasant support and win the civil war.
Political Experiments of the 1920’s
 Cheka
 Was the secret police for the Bolshevik government.
 This would set the stage for Stalin’s KGB
Political Experiments of the 1920’s
 Kronstadt
 Was where a sailors’ revolt occurred in 1920-1921. This
revolt was then crushed by the Red Army with grave
loss of life.
 This revolt demonstrated how the revolution was not
much of a proletarian revolution as Marx believed it
would be.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 NEP
 This was the New Economic Policy created by Lenin in
March 1921. The policy created private enterprise in the
government.
 This plan would later led to Stalin’s collectivization of
the all the farmland in the USSR.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Politburo
 This was the governing committee for the Communist
Party.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Josef Stalin
 Lived from 1879 – 1953 and ruled the USSR from 1927 –
1953. He eliminated his opposition, Trotsky, when coming
into power by supporting the NEP and the doctrine of
“socialism in one country.” His reign in the USSR was one
of terror and fear.
 His
reign is significant because he brought
industrialization to Russia.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Nikolai Bukharin
 He believed that Russia should have remained in WWI
in order to spread Bolshevism. However, his ideologies
were overruled by both Lenin’s and Trotsky’s no war
beliefs. He would later by purged by Stalin in 1938.
 He was significant because his death demonstrated
how Stalin was purging high politicians from brfore his
reign.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Socialism in One Country”
 This was a doctrine held by Stalin. It meant that Russia
was the only capable country to adopt a communist
government. He used this doctrine against Trotsky
belief that communist had to occur in other nations in
order for communism to be maintained in the world.
 This doctrine is significant in that it was able to take
an ideology and turn it into something nationalistic.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 The Third International, or “Comintern”
 This was established in 1919. Its main job was to spread
the USSR ideologies throughout the West. It caused
great fear of a socialist coup in the West.
 Its establishment caused the ideas of communist to
change into different westernized forms.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Fascism
 This was an anti-democratic, anti-Marxist, anti-
parliamentary, anti-Bolshevik, and, as fascism became
popular, anti-Semitic. It called for a unified nation
achieving goals for the good of the whole nation. It
also called supported a capitalistic economy.
 This was significant because its popularity would come
from nations with a poor economy and a failing
democratic state.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Benito Mussolini
 Mussolini lived from 1883-1945. He would become the
Fascist leader of Italy after legally gaining the support
of most of Italy. He was able establish peace with the
Catholic Church in Italy.
 He was significant because he created Fascism and
would later be undermined by Hitler.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 “March On Rome”
 This was also known as the Black Shirt March and
occurred in Oct. 1922. Mussolini had his Black Shirts
march to Rome.
 This caused King Emmanuel III to make Mussolini
prime minister.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Black Shirts
 They were the fascist supports of Mussolini that
terrorized communist politicians and proletariat
rebels. The members originated from the Fasci di
Combattimento, which was a group of veterans that felt
cheated by the peace conferences in Paris.
 This was significant because it was the first time that a
political party had an army before it was in power.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Victor Emmanuel III
 He ruled Italy from 1900-1946.
 He allowed Mussolini to become prime minister after
the March on Rome.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Giacomo Matteotti
 Was a noncommunist, socialist leader that criticized
Mussolini. As a result he was murdered by the thugs of
Mussolini’s new military government.
 His death demonstrated the corruption that occurred
under Mussolini’s government.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Latern Accord with The Vatican
 This established peace between the church and
Mussolini’s government.
 This was significant because the Catholic Church
would now be controlled by a political party.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Little Entente
 This was an alliance between France,
Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Romanian, and Yugoslavia.
 This demonstrated France’s weakness after WWI and
its desire to gain allies in the East.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Invasion of the Ruhr
 This occurred in Jan. 11, 1923 when French and Belgium
soldiers were sent to the demilitarized Rhineland to
occupy a mining and manufacturing district. France
did this in order to force Germany to pay its missed
reparations. After the German government acted
passively to the occupation, German workers held a
strike. This led to France sending its own workers to
work the factories.
 Initially, the invasion caused France to lose money and
caused the German economy to crumble.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Hyperinflation
 This is when an economy collapses so much that in
order to gain one standard dollar; millions of the
collapsed currency would be needed.
 This occurred to the German economy after the
invasion of the Rhineland by France.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Cartel des Gauches
 This was a coalition of the French leftist parties. It was
led by Edouard Herriot. It recognized the Soviet Union
and adopted a conciliatory policy towards Germany.
 This was significant because it was the first time that a
coalition of leftist politics ever occurred.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Aristide Briand
 He was the foreign minister that championed the
League of Nations and advocated that France’s military
power does not give it the power to control foreign
affairs.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Labor Government and Stanley Baldwin
 He become prime minister for the conservative ministry in
1922 and planned to fix the failing British economy through
an increase in trade and tariffs. However, his plans were
rejected and when the Labour party gained the second
largest group of members into the House of Commons,
King George V asked Ramsey MacDonald to create the
Labour ministry.
 The party was socialistic, but not revolutionary, and
democratic. After more economic problems arose, the
Labour government fell to the conservative party in 1924.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 General Strike of 1926
 This occurred after the conservative ministry based the
English pound to the gold standard. This made British
exports more expensive when compared to other
nations. As a result, not much trade could be done and
by proxy not much labor was needed. After factory
owners began to cut wages the workers went on strike
that would last nine days.
 This was significant because it demonstrated how
workers were greatly affected by policies made by the
government.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Easter 1916
 A nationalist uprising in Dublin, Ireland occurred on
this day. Occupied with the WWI, Britain quickly
suppressed the rebellion and executed the nationalist
leaders responsible.
 This is significant because these leaders would then
become national martyrs throughout Ireland and
would cause extreme Irish parliamentarians to form
the Sinn Fein Party.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Sinn Fein
 This was a political party in Ireland. In the elections of
1918, it won most of its seats in parliament and refused
to seat at Westminster. They chose to seat in the Dail
Eireann, or the Irish Parliament. On January 21, 1919,
they declared Irish independence.
 After a peace treaty was sign on Dec. 1921, which made
Northern Ireland remain under British control, civil
War broke out between the Irish moderates, pro-peace
treaty, and the Irish diehards, anti-peace treaty.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 IRA
 Irish Republican Army; was the military faction of the
Sinn Fein Party. It used guerrilla warfare against the
British forces.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Irish Free State
 This was the part of Ireland that was declared a part of
the British Commonwealth under the peace treaty of
December 1921.
 This separation of Ireland would cause conflicts that
still remain today.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Northern Ireland
 This was the part of Ireland that was remained under
the British Empire under the peace treaty of December
1921.
 This separation of Ireland would cause conflicts that
still remain today.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Weimar Republic
 Its constitution was created in August of 1919. It was
blamed for most of the problems that arose from the
Treaty of Versailles even though it was not created
early enough to have signed the treaty.
 The constitution would late allow Hitler to become a
dictator in Germany.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Article 48
 This was the article in the Weimar constitution that
allowed a dictatorship to exist during a state of
emergency.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Kapp Putsch
 This occurred in March 1920 when the right-wing part
tries to take over the republic but fails.
 This represented the ongoing battle between
ideologies in Germany at this time period.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 National Socialist German Workers Party
 Also known as the Nazi Party. Hitler becomes a part of
this party in 1920. This party promoted fascist
ideologies and opposed the treaty of Versailles. The
party drew much of its support from the WWI
veterans that were facing great economic and social
displacement.
 It was significant because the party would later
become the government of Germany and try to
establish a “super race.”
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Twenty Five Points
 These were the main ideologies of the Nazi Party. It
included ideas such as a capitalistic economy, agrarian
reforms, and the unification of all pure Germans to
form the correctly expanded Germany.
 This was significant because it demonstrated the antiSemitism that the Nazi Party had
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 SA
 Abbreviation
for Strumabteilung. They attacked
socialist and communist leaders and supports as
Mussolini’s Black Shirts did.
 This group would later be used as a way to galvanize
Nazi support.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Beer Hall Putsch
 Occurred in November 9, 1923. This was another
attempt to seize the government but once again fails
and Hitler and General Ludendorff are sent to jail.
 It was at this time that Hitler writes his Mein Kampf
with Ludendorff as the ghost writer.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 “Lebensraum”
 This was Hitler’s doctrine of “living space” for
Germans. He believed that the Treaty of Versailles
wrongly took land that Germans needed in order to
form failing democratic nations.
 It would be based on this doctrine that Hitler would
justify his conquest in Central Europe during the
1930s.
Political Experiments of the
1920’s
 Gustav Stressman
 Lived from 1878-1929. He began to reconstruct the republic
when he began chancellor from August to November 1923
and later as foreign minister. With the help of the banker
Hjalmar Schacht, Stresemann was able to create a new
currency for Germany; the Rentenamark. Stresemann was
neither communist nor Fascist. He signed the Dawes in
1924, which lowered the amount of reparations that
Germany had to pay back and lowered the amount of time
that France would stay in the Rhineland.
 He was significant because he was able to bring economic
prosperity to Europe before the Great Depression.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Dawes Plan
 in 1924 it reorganized the administration and transfer
of reparations which smoothed the debt repayments to
the United States. The Dawes Plan caused private
American capital to flow into Europe. Much of the
money was in short term loans after WWI.
·
During Stresmann years in Germany this plan
developed by German and Western allies accepted the
need for Germany to play its war debts and blended
England’s desire for balance with France’s needs for
repayment assurances.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Paul von Hindenberg
 Gave Hitler the chancellorship and was the successor
of Freidrich Ebert in Germany. He governed with strict
accordance with the constitution.
 He was responsible for appointing Heinrich Brunning
and the Franz von Papen in 1932.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Locarno Pact
 in 1925 Germany’s foreign minister Gustav Stresemann
undertook regional efforts in which Germany would
accept France and England’s western borders in return
for early allied withdrawal from the demilitarized
Rhineland.
 was guaranteed to keep peace between the European
states.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Young Plan
 In 1929 it replaced the Dawes Plan and lowered
German reparation payments and put a limit on how
long they had to be made while removing Germany
from outside supervision and control.
 It required Germany to make payments for 59 yrs an
accomplishment of Gustav Stresemann
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Ramsay McDonald
 was head of the second minority Labor Government in
Great Britain 1929 recommended budget cuts and tax
increases
 Formed the National Government.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 National Government
 a national coalition formed by Ramsay Mc. Donald in
order to address the Great Depression.
 It balanced the budget, increased taxes, lowered
government salaries and abandoned the gold standard
as it adopted the Import Duties Bill (high tariffs on
imports). These decisions helped balance Great
Britain’s international economy.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 The Road to Wigan Pier
 A novel by George Orwell that tries to give the reader a
detailed view of the conditions of the poor and unemployed.
 The Road to Wigan Pier is an account of his experiences, along
with more general ruminations on class and the challenge
facing socialism.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Croix de Feu
 Known as the “cross of fire”. Was a right- wing group
with authoritarian tendencies and were hostile to
parliamentary government, socialism, and
communism.
 There activities and propaganda of the right- wing
group weakened loyalty to the republican government.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Edouard Daladier
 a radical minister replaced by Blum after the clash
between the right and left wing in France.
 In 1938 another radical ministry under Daladier
replaced the Popular Front ministry.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Leon Blum
 formed the popular front in France and formed new
policies to bring together representatives of labor and
management.
 Focused on the internal climate of France rather than
international policies.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 “Popular Front”
 Raised wages between 7-15% there was a 40 hr week for
work and raised salaries of civil servants while it
resisted devaluating the Franc.
 Under Leon Blum it overcame labor hostility to French
society to establish a foundation for justice in labormanagement relations and to increase domestic
consumer demand in France.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Heinrich Brunning
 Governed through emergency presidential elections
 Was not effective in improving the economy and was
dismissed by Hindenburg after the German elections
of 1932 against Hitler.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Franz von Papen
 Replaced chancellor Brunning in Germany and formed
a government from aristocratic conservatives
 He ruled by presidential decree and dissolved the
Reichstag on September 12, 1931.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Kurt von Schleicher
 Became chancellor of Germany after Papen. He
attempted to bypass Hitler and draw the Nazi party
into a coalition by trying to be in negotiation with
another Nazi leader but it failed.
 Schleicher failed to achieve political stability of the
Hindenburg circle.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Josef Goebbels
 Propaganda minister used both radio and films to
boost the Nazi cause.
 The use of good propaganda allowed German citizens
to support the Nazi cause which became more effective
within Europe.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Reichstag Fire
 On February 27, 1933 it was said that an ill Dutch
communist set fire on the Reichstag in Germany.
 Caused Hitler to issue and emergency decree
suspending civil liberties and arrested communist or
alleged communists under Article 48.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Enabling Act
 on March 23, 1933 the Reichstag permitted Hitler to
rule by decree due to the political fear the Reichstag
fire caused and the removal of all communists.
 So his exercise of power had no legal limits and the
Nazi party began seizing the officers, banks,
newspapers, and arrested their leaders.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Ernst Roehm
 Was the commander of the SA or storm troopers and
labeled as a possible rival to Hitler Roehm.
 Other key SA leaders were killed on June 30, 1934
because Hitler feared the SA itself as a rival.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Heinrich Himmler
 Commanded the SS security units (or protective force)
by 1936 Himmler had become head of all police
matters.
 He was among the Nazi’s closest to Hitler in power and
influence
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Nuremberg Laws
 In 1935 Jews were robbed of their rights. Professions
and major occupations were closed.
 Marriage and sexual intercourse between Jews and
non-Jews was prohibited as legal humiliation of Jews
became the order of the day.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Kristallnacht
 In November of 1938 thousands of Jewish stores, and
synagogues were destroyed under Nazi Party orders.
 The Jewish community had to pay for the destruction
itself because the government had confiscated the
insurance money that’s was paid to cover the damages.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Final Solution
 In 1941 and 1942 Hitler decided to destroy the Jews in
Europe killing more than six million Jews.
 Hitler put his goals of purifying Germany into full
effect eliminating all inferior races.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Corporatism
 a fascist’s economy in Italy. It was a policy that took an
economic course between socialism and laissez- faire.
 It was a planned economy linked to the private
ownership of capital and to government arbitration of
labor disputes.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 “Socialism One Country”
 Stalin’s Policy in his goal to have the communist Soviet
Union overtakes the productive capacity of its
enemies, the capitalist nations.
 This policy required the rapid urbanization and
construction of heavy industries.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Gosplan
 The state planning commission in the Soviet Union.
 Attempted to organize the economy and set goals for
production in every area of economic life.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Five Year Plans
 Became Stalin’s organizational vehicle for
industrialization.
 It was a series of plans in order to coordinate all facets
of production
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Collectivization
 The replacement of private peasant farms with huge
state-run and state-owned farms called collectives.
 This gave the Communist Party firm control of the
Farm sector of the economy. As part of their plan the
government announced its determination to eliminate
the Kulaks.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Kulaks
 Were any peasants who resisted collectivization
 Were regarded as counterrevolutionary.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 “Terror Famine”
 By 1937 over 90 percent of Soviet grain production had
been collectivized but had not solved the problem of
producing enough food.
 Over two million peasants were forcibly removed from
their homes and deported in overcrowded cattle cars
to distant areas. Peasants who were sent to prison
camps died from disease, malnutrition, and exposure.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Sergei Kirov
 In December of 1934 Kirov had been assassinated as a
result of Stalin’s Great Purges.
 Many believed Stalin authorized the killing of Kirov
because he was afraid of him.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Great Purges
 Due to turmoil in the countryside and economic
distress caused by industrialization Stalin began to
fear he was losing control of the country and that
effective rivals of his power might emerge.
 Persons accused of disloyalty and sabotage was
executed. Between 1936 and 1938 a series of show trails
were held where former high Soviet Union leader had
publicly confessed to political crimes and were
convicted and executed. Hundreds of thousands of
soviet citizens were either executed or deported to
slave labor camps.
Europe and the Great
Depression of the 1930’s
 Bukharin
 One of the former Soviet Union leaders who belonged
to the politburo who publicly confessed to political
crimes and was executed.
 This was the beginning of several other executions.
World War II
 Italy/Ethiopia
World War II
 The Rhineland
World War II
 Appeasement
World War II
 Spanish Civil War
World War II
 Guernica
World War II
 Anschluss
World War II
 Sudetenland
World War II
 Munich Pact
World War II
 Winston Churchill
World War II
 Nazi-Soviet Pact
World War II
 Blitzkrieg
World War II
 Sitzkrieg
World War II
 Battle of Britain
World War II
 Operation Barbarossa
World War II
 Erwin Rommel
World War II
 Third Reich
World War II
 El Alamein
World War II
 Battle of Stalingrad
World War II
 Operation Overlord
World War II
 The Battle of the Bulge
World War II
 Untermenschen
World War II
 Holocaust
World War II
 Albert Speer
World War II
 Josef Goebbles
World War II
 Occupied France
World War II
 Vichy France
World War II
 Charles de Gaulle
World War II
 “The Great Patriotic War”
World War II
 The Atlantic Charter
World War II
 Tehran
World War II
 Yalta
World War II
 Potsdam
The Cold War and the Emergence of a New
Europe
 The Cold War
The Cold War and the Emergence of a New
Europe
 Containment
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 The Truman Doctrine
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 The Marshall Plan
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Berlin Blockade
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Berlin Airlift
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 NATO
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Warsaw Pact
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Balfour Declaration
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Israel
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Korean War
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Nikita Khrushchev
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Alexander Solzhenitsyn
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Secret Speech (1956)
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Crisis in the Suez (1956)
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Hungarian Uprising (1956)
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Imre Nagy
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Sputnik
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 The Berlin Wall
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 The Cuban Missile Crisis
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Leonid Brezhnev
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Brezhnev Doctrine
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Détente
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Helsinki Accords
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Afghanistan Invasion
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Solidarity
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Lech Walesa
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Decolonization
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Mohandas Gandhi
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 France and Algeria
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 French Indochina
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Vietnam Conflict
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Ho Chi Minh
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Mikhail Gorbachev
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Perestroika
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Glasnost
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Vaclav Havel/Velvet Revolution
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Nicolae Ceausescu
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 August 1991 Coup
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Boris Yeltsin
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Chechnya
The Cold War and the Emergence of a New
Europe
 Vladimir Putin
The Cold War and the Emergence of a New
Europe
 Slobodan Milosevic
The Cold War and the Emergence of a New
Europe
 Bosnia
The Cold War and the Emergence of a New
Europe
 Serbia
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Croats
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Kosovo
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Arab Nationalism
The Cold War and the Emergence of a
New Europe
 Iranian Revolution (1979)
The Cold War and the Emergence of a New
Europe
 Islamic Fundamentalism
The Cold War and the Emergence of a New
Europe
 Jihad
The Cold War and the Emergence of a New
Europe
 Taliban/Al Qaeda
The Cold War and the Emergence of a New
Europe
 Madrasas