Transcript Chapter 26

Chapter 25
Varieties of
Imperialism in Africa,
India, Southeast Asia,
and Latin America,
1750-1914
Chronology from 1750-1900
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Slavery
Africa
India and Southeast Asia
1750
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1756 Black Hole of Calcutta
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1765 East India Company (EIC) rule
of Bengal begins
1800
1807 Britain outlaws slave
trade
1808 Britain takes over Sierra Leone
1809 Sokoto Caliphate founded
1818 Shaka founds Zulu kingdom 1821
Foundation of Liberia
1850
1831-1847 Algerians resist French
takeover
1836-1839 Afrikaners' Great Trek
1840 Omani sultan moves capital to
1848 France abolishes slaves in Zanzibar
its colonies
1867 End of Atlantic slave trade 1869 Jaja founds Opobo
1900
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Latin America
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1818 EIC creates Bombay
Presidency
1826 EIC annexes Assam and
northern Burma
1828 Brahmo Samaj founded
1834 Britain frees slaves in its
colonies. Indentured labor
migrations begin
1899-1902 Boer War
1900s Railroads connect ports to the
interior
1857-1858 Sepoy Rebellion leads to
end of EIC rule and Mughal rule
1877 Queen Victoria becomes
Empress of India
1876-1910 Porfirio Diaz, dictator
1885 Indian National Congress
of Mexico
formed
1898 Spanish-American War. U.S.
takes over Philippines
1898 Spanish-American War. U.S.
takes over Cuba
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1910 Mexican Revolution begins
1917 New constitution proclaimed in Mexico
p659
Changes and Exchanges
in Africa
• Southern Africa
• Serious drought hit the coastlands of
southeastern Africa in the early
nineteenth century and led to
conflicts over grazing and farming
lands.
• During these conflicts, Shaka used
strict military drill and close-combat
warfare to build the Zulu kingdom.
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Zulu in Battle Dress, 1838
p658
• Some neighboring
Africans created their own
states (such as Swaziland
and Lesotho) to protect
themselves against the
expansionist Zulu
kingdom.
• Shaka ruled the Zulu
kingdom for little more
than a decade, but he
succeeded in creating a
new national identity as
well as a new kingdom.
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• The Cape Colony, taken from the Dutch,
was valuable to Britain because of its
strategic importance as a supply station on
the route to India.
• In response to British pressure, the
descendants of earlier French and Dutch
settlers (the Afrikaners) embarked on a
“great trek” to found new colonies on the
fertile high veld that had been depopulated
by the Zulu wars.
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• Southern Africa had long been attractive to
European settlers because of its good
pastures and farmland and its mineral
wealth.
• The discovery of diamonds at Kimberley in
1868 attracted European prospectors and
Africans; it also set off the process by
which the British Cape Colony expanded,
annexing Kimberley and defeating the
Xhosa and the Zulu.
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South African Diamond Mine
p661
• Cecil Rhodes used his British South Africa
Company to take over land in central
Africa, where he created the colonies of
Southern Rhodesia and Northern
Rhodesia.
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• British control over South Africa was
consolidated when Britain defeated the
Afrikaaners in the South African War
(1899–1902).
• In 1910, the European settlers created the
Union of South Africa, in which the
Afrikaaners emerged as the ruling element
in a government that assigned Africans to
reservations and established a system of
racial segregation.
• Later this system is called apartheid
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Africa in the Nineteenth Century
Map 26.1 p660
• West and Equatorial Africa
• In West Africa, movements to purify Islam led
to the construction of new states through the
classic Muslim pattern of jihad.
• The Arabic word "jihad" is often translated as
"holy war," but in a purely linguistic sense, the
word " jihad" means struggling or striving.
(source the Islamic Supreme Council of America
website)
• Largest of these reform movements occurred
in the Hausa states and led to the
establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate (1809–
1906).
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• The new Muslim states became centers of
Islamic learning and reform.
• Sokoto and other Muslim states both sold
slaves and used slaves to raise food, thus
making it possible for them to seclude free
Muslim women in their homes in accordance
with reformed Muslim practice.
• In West Africa, the French built a railroad from
the upper Senegal River to the upper Niger to
open the interior to French merchants.
• In the Congo Basin, King Leopold II of
Belgium (with the help of Henry Stanley)
claimed the area south of the Congo River,
while France claimed the northern bank.
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• The Berlin Conference
• German chancellor Bismarck called the
Berlin Conference on Africa in 1884
and 1885 to lay out the framework
under which Africa would be occupied
by the European nations.
• In practice, the division and occupation
of Africa met with resistance and
required many years of effort.
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• In West Africa, the new colonial powers
took advantage of and developed the
existing trade networks.
• In equatorial Africa, where there were few
inhabitants and little trade, the colonial
powers granted concessions to private
companies that forced Africans to produce
cash crops and to carry them to the
nearest navigable river or railroad.
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• Modernization in Egypt & Ethiopia
• In Egypt, Muhammad Ali (r. 1805–1848)
carried out a series of modernizing reforms for
Egypt that combined Western methods with
Islamic religious and cultural traditions.
• Muhammad Ali’s grandson Ismail placed even
more emphasis on westernizing Egypt.
• Ismail’s ambitious construction programs
(railroads, the new capital city of Cairo) were
funded by borrowing from French and British
banks. These projects were financed with
high-interest loans from European creditors
and Egypt ultimately sold shares of the Suez
Canal to Great Britain to lower their debt.
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• French and British bankers lobbied their
governments to intervene in Egypt to secure
their loans.
• In 1882, the British sent an army into Egypt
and established a system of indirect rule that
lasted for seventy years.
• The British worked to develop Egyptian
agriculture, especially cotton production, by
building a dam across the Nile at Aswan.
• The economic development of Egypt only
benefited a small group of elite landowners
and merchants, and it was accompanied by
the introduction of western ways that conflicted
with the teachings of Islam.
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• In the mid- to late nineteenth century
Ethiopian kings reconquered territory that
had been lost since the sixteenth century,
purchased modern European weapons,
and began to manufacture weapons
locally.
• An attempt to hold British officials captive
led to a temporary British occupation in the
1860s, but the British invaded instead.
• Menelik II took power after the British
withdrew and he successfully defended
Ethiopia when Italy tried to force them into
being a protectorate.
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• Transition from the Slave Trade
• In 1808, news of slave revolts like that on
Saint Domingue and the activities of
abolitionists combined to lead Britain and
the United States to prohibit their citizens
from participating in the slave trade.
• The British used their navy to stop the
slave trade, but the continued demand for
slaves in Cuba and Brazil meant that the
trade did not end until 1867.
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• As the slave trade declined, Africans
expanded their “legitimate trade” in gold
and other goods.
• The most successful new export was palm
oil, which was exported to British
manufacturers of soap, candles, and
lubricants.
• The increased export of palm oil altered the
social structure of coastal trading
communities of the Niger Delta, as is
demonstrated in the career of the canoe
slave Jaja, who became a wealthy palm oil
trader in the 1870s.
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King Jaja of Opobo
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p665
• The suppression of the slave trade also
helped to spread Western cultural
influences in West Africa.
• Missionaries converted and founded
schools for the recaptives whom the British
settled in Sierra Leone.
• Black Americans
brought Western
culture to Liberia
and to other parts of
Africa before and
after emancipation
in the United States.
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• Secondary Empire in Eastern
Africa
• When British patrols ended the slave trade
on the Atlantic coast, slave traders in the
Atlantic trade began to purchase their
slaves from the East African markets that
had traditionally supplied slaves to North
Africa and the Middle East.
• Zanzibar Island and neighboring territories
ruled by the sultan of Oman were important
in the slave trade, the ivory trade, and the
cultivation of cloves on plantations using
slave labor.
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India under British Rule
•East India Company
• In the eighteenth century, the Mughal
Empire was defeated and its capital
sacked by marauding Iranian
(Persian) armies, while internally the
Mughal’s deputies (nawabs) had
become de facto independent rulers
of their states.
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• British, French, and Dutch companies
staffed by ambitious young “company men”
established trading posts in strategic
places and hired Indian troops (sepoys) to
defend them.
• By the early 1800s, the British East India
Company had pushed the French out of
south India, forced the Mughal Empire to
recognize company rule over Bengal, and
taken control of large territories that
became the core of the Bombay
Presidency.
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• The British raj (reign) over India aimed both to
introduce administrative and social reform and
to maintain the support of Indian allies by
respecting Indian social and religious customs.
• Before 1850, the British created a government
that relied on sepoy military power, disarmed
the warriors of the Indian states, gave free
reign to Christian missionaries, and established
a private land ownership system to ease tax
collection.
• At the same time, the British bolstered the
traditional power of princes and holy men and
invented so-called traditional rituals to
celebrate their own rule.
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• British political and economic influence
benefited Indian elites and created jobs in
some sectors while bringing new oppression
to the poor and causing the collapse of the
traditional textile industry.
• Discontent among the needy and particularly
among the Indian soldiers (and the cow/pig fat
issue…) led to the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857.
• In the eyes of the British this was a mutiny but
in the eyes of the Indian people this is the first
struggle for independence
• The rebellion was suppressed in 1858, but it
gave the British a severe shock.
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•
Political Reform and Industrial
Impact
• After the rebellion of 1857–1858, the
British eliminated the last traces of Mughal
and company rule and installed a new
government administered from London.
• The new government continued to
emphasize both tradition and reform,
maintained Indian princes in luxury, and
staged elaborate ceremonial pageants
known as durbars.
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Delhi Durbar, January 1, 1903
p669
Queen Victoria of England also
became Empress of India
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• An efficient bureaucracy, the Indian Civil
Service (ICS), now controlled the Indian
masses.
• Recruitment into the ICS was by
examinations that were theoretically open
to all, but in practice, racist attitudes
prevented Indians from gaining access to
the upper levels of administration.
• Test were only given in England…
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• After 1857, the British government and
British enterprises expanded the
production and export of agricultural
commodities and built irrigation systems,
railroads, and telegraph lines.
• Exports included cotton, opium, tea, silk,
and sugar
• Freer movement of people into the cities
caused the spread of cholera, which was
brought under control when new sewage
and filtered water systems were installed in
the major cities in the late nineteenth and
early twentieth centuries. (still hit the poor)
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• Indian Nationalism
• The failure of the rebellion of 1857
prompted some Indians to argue that the
only way for Indians to regain control of
their destiny was to reduce their country’s
social and ethnic divisions and to promote
a Pan-Indian nationalism.
• In the early nineteenth century,
Rammouhan (Ram) Roy and his Brahmo
Samaj movement tried to reconcile Indian
religious traditions with western values and
to reform traditional abuses of women.
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• After 1857, Indian intellectuals tended to
turn toward western secular values and
western nationalism as a way of
developing a Pan-Indian nationalism that
would transcend regional and religious
differences.
• Indian middle-class nationalists convened
the first Indian National Congress in 1885.
• The congress promoted national unity and
argued for greater inclusion of Indians in
the Civil Service, but it was an elite
organization with little support from the
masses.
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Southeast Asia and the Pacific
• British defeat of French and Dutch forces in
the Napoleonic Wars allowed Britain to
expand its control in Southeast Asia.
• The British established a series of strategic
outposts in Southeast Asia. Raffles
established the free port of Singapore in
1824, Assam was annexed to India in
1826, and Burma was annexed in 1852.
• Malaya, Indochina and northern Sumatra
followed, falling to the British, French and
Dutch respectively.
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• In an attempt to stop Britain from moving
into Vietnam in 1857 the French forced the
Vietnamese to become a protectorate.
• After France conquered Indochina, Thailand
(earlier called Siam) was the only remaining
free state in Southeast Asia
• Why Thailand?
• Two remarkable rulers prevented the
takeover– King Mongkut and his son
King Chulalongkorn.
• Both promoted friendly relations with the
West and Western learning.
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• Australia
• The development of new ships and
shipping networks contributed to the
colonization of Australia and New Zealand
by British settlers who then displaced the
indigenous populations just as they had in
the Amerias.
• Portuguese mariners sighted Australia in
the early seventeenth century, and Captain
James Cook surveyed New Zealand and
the eastern Australian coast between 1769
and 1778. (John Green has a whole video on
the strange adventures of Captain Cook)
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• Unfamiliar diseases brought by new
overseas contacts substantially reduced
the populations of the hunter-gatherers of
Australia and the Maori of New Zealand.
• Australia received British convicts and,
after the discovery of gold in 1851, a flood
of free European (and some Chinese)
settlers.
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• New Zealand
• British settlers came more slowly to New
Zealand until defeat of the Maori, faster
ships, and a short gold rush brought more
British immigrants after 1860.
• The British crown gradually turned
governing power over to the British settlers
of Australia and New Zealand, but
Aborigines and the Maori experienced
discrimination.
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• Hawaii and the Philippines,
1878-1902
• By the late 1890s, the U.S. economy was in
need of export markets and the political mood
favored expansionism.
• The United States annexed the Hawaiian
Islands in 1898.
• Hawaii had both agricultural resources and
was militarily strategic.
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Queen Liliuokalani
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• In the Philippines, Emilio Aguinaldo led an
uprising against the Spanish in 1898.
• He might very well have succeeded in
establishing a republic if the United States
had not purchased the Philippines from
Spain at the end of the Spanish-American
War.
• In 1899 he led a rebellion against the
United States that ultimately cost many
lives as well as torture and costly damage.
The Philippines were promised
independence in 1916 and actually
received it 30 years later.
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Emilio Aguinaldo
p673
Asia in 1914
Map 26.2 p672
Imperialism in Latin America
•American Expansionism and the
Spanish-American War, 1898
• The United States had long held interest in
Cuba; American businesses had invested in
Cuban sugar and tobacco production.
• When Cubans began a revolution against
Spanish rule, the United States ultimately
aided the Cubans against Spain.
• After defeating Spain in the Spanish-American
War, the U.S. took over Puerto Rico, while
Cuba became an independent republic
subject to intense interference by the U.S.
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•Economic Imperialism
• The natural resources of the Latin American
republics made them targets for a form of
economic dependence called free-trade
imperialism.
• British and U.S. entrepreneurs financed and
constructed railroads to exploit the agricultural
and mineral wealth of Latin America.
• Latin American elites encouraged foreign
companies with generous concessions
because this appeared to be the fastest way
both to modernize their countries and to enrich
the Latin American property-owning class.
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•Revolution and Civil War in Mexico
• Upon independence in 1821, Mexican
society was deeply divided; a few wealthy
families of Spanish origin owned 85% of the
land, while the majority of Indians and
mestizos were poor peasants.
• Concentration of land ownership increased
after independence as wealthy families and
American companies used bribery and
force to acquire millions of acres of good
agricultural land, forcing peasants into wage
labor, and debt.
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• In 1910, General Porfirio Diaz (1830–1915)
had ruled for thirty-four years. Diaz’s
policies had made Mexico City a
modernized showplace and brought wealth
to a small number of businessmen, but his
rule was also characterized by
discrimination against the nonwhite majority
of Mexicans and a decline in the average
Mexican’s standard of living.
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• The Mexican Revolution was a social
revolution and not the work of one party with a
well-defined ideology; it developed
haphazardly, led by a series of ambitious but
limited men, each representing a different
segment of Mexican society.
• Francisco I Madero (1873–1913) overthrew
Diaz in 1911, only to be overthrown in turn by
General Victoriana Huerta in 1913. The
Constitutionalists Venustiano Carranza and
Alvaro Obregon emerged as leaders of the
disaffected middle class and industrial
workers, and they organized armies that
overthrew Huerta in 1914.
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• Emiliano Zapata (1879–1919) led a peasant
revolt in Morelos, south of Mexico City,
while Francisco (Pancho) Villa organized an
army in northern Mexico.
• Neither man was able to rise above his
regional and peasant origins to lead a
national revolution; Zapata was defeated
and killed by the Constitutionalists in 1919,
and Villa was assassinated in 1923.
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Francisco “Pancho” Villa
p677
• The Constitutionalists took over Mexico
after years of fighting, an estimated 2
million casualties, and tremendous damage.
In the process, the Constitutionalists
adopted many of their rivals’ agrarian
reforms and proposed a number of social
programs designed to appeal to workers
and the middle class. The Mexican
Revolution lost momentum in the 1920s,
though, with few of the proposed reforms
ever actually enacted.
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•American Intervention in the
Caribbean and Central America,
1901-1914
• The United States often used military
intervention to force the small nations of
Central America and the Caribbean to
repay loans owed to banks in Europe or the
United States.
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• The United States occupied Cuba, the
Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Honduras,
and Haiti on various occasions during the
late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries.
• The United States was particularly forceful
in Panama, supporting the Panamanian
rebellion against Colombia in 1903 and then
building and controlling the Panama Canal.
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The Mexican Revolution
Map 26.3 p676
The World Economy and the
Global Environment
Expansion of the World Economy
•The Industrial Revolution greatly expanded
the demand for spices, silk, agricultural
goods, and raw materials in the industrialized
countries.
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• The growing need for these products could
not be met by traditional methods of
production and transportation, so the
imperialists brought their colonies into the
mainstream of the world market and
introduced new technologies.
• One dramatic result of colonization was
rapid environmental change as farms and
plantations replaced forests and traditional
agricultural zones.
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Free Trade
• Britain in this period was more interested in
trade than in acquiring territory. Most of the
new colonies were intended to serve as ports
in a global shipping network that the British
envisioned in terms of free trade, as opposed
to the previous mercantilist trade policy.
• Whether colonized or not, more lands were
being drawn into the commercial networks
created by British expansion and
industrialization. These areas became
exporters of raw materials and agricultural
goods and importers of affordable
manufactured products.
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New Labor Migrations
• Between 1834 and 1870, large numbers of
Indians, Chinese, and Africans went
overseas as laborers.
• British India was the greatest source of
migrant laborers, and British colonies
(particularly sugar plantations) were the
principal destinations of the migrants.
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• With the end of slavery, the demand for cheap
labor in the British colonies, Cuba, and Hawaii
was filled by Indians, free Africans, Chinese,
and Japanese workers.
• Workers served under contracts of indenture
that bound them to work for a specified
number of years in return for free passage to
their overseas destination; a small salary; and
free housing, clothing, and medical care.
• This new indentured labor trade reflected the
economic and industrial dominance of the
West, but it was not entirely a one-way street.
These migrants were trying to improve their
lives, and many of them succeeded.
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A Rubber Plantation
p679
Conclusion
• What stands out in this period is not just the military and
political strength of Europe and the United States, but
their domination of global commerce as they moved into
Southeast Asia and Africa for a variety of economic
reasons.
• These colonial exchanges could be mutually beneficial in
some ways. Consumers now gained access to cheaper
manufactured goods, and African and Asian resources
reached the global market. These interactions could also
be profoundly disruptive too, as they produced significant
environmental change and also undermined local, smallscale manufacturers.
• The rest of the world was not simply an appendage to the
West though. Local cultures remained vibrant and many
in Asia and Latin America retained control of their own
destinies.
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