Transcript Origins of World War I

Origins of World War I
Daniel W. Blackmon
IB HL History
Coral Gables Sr. High School
Review
Proletariat
Mikhail Bakunin
Joseph Proudhon
General Will
Second International
The Great Powers in 1900
Great Britain
France
Germany
Austria-Hungary
Russia
Great Britain
“splendid isolation”
“England has no permanent allies, only
permanent interests”
The Empire based on naval supremacy
France
Revanche
Alsace-Lorraine
Empire
Germany under Bismarck
Balance of power
Maintain the peace
Congress system
Overseas empire “not worth the bones of a
German grenadier”
Wilhelmine Germany
“A place in the sun”
Risk Fleet
Pan-Germanism
Austria-Hungary
The Eastern Question
Whether the various nationalities of Eastern
Europe and the Balkans should obtain their
independence and/or autonomy, and if so,
under what conditions, or, if not, under whose
rule should they remain?
Austria-Hungary
Multi-ethnic, dual monarchy, a
holdover from the dynastic states of the
ancien regime.
Nationalism is a deadly threat to an
anachronistic state such as AustriaHungary.
Austria-Hungary
Ethnic groups in Austria (according to
the census of 1910)
28,500,000 total
10,000,000 Germans
2,000,000 Jews
6,643,000 Czechs
5,000,000 Poles
Austria-Hungary
Ethnic groups in Austria (according to
the census of 1910)
4,000,000 Ukrainians
2,600,000 Serbs
800,000 Italians
Austria-Hungary
Ethnic groups in Hungary
20,500,000 total
8,700,000 Magyar
2,000,000
Slovaks
3,000,000
Croats and Slavonians
500,000
Ruthenians
3,000,000
Romanians
850,000
Jews
Austria-Hungary
The Eastern Question
The region has a mixture of peoples in the
Balkans--Albanians, Macedonians, Serbs,
Rumanians, Croats, Ruthenes, Slovenes,
Bosnians, Montenegrins, and Turks
Russia
Quest for a warm water port
The Eastern Question
Pan-Slavism
Russia
Since the time of Peter the Great,
Russia had sought ice free ports.
Closely associated with this desire was
to secure control of the Bosporus and
the Dardanelles and thus secure
unrestricted access to the Eastern
Mediterranean.
Russia
Russia and the Ottoman Empire were
therefore natural enemies
Since England did not wish Russia to
have access to the Eastern
Mediterranean Sea, Russia and
England tended to conflict in the 19th
century
Russia
Pan-Slavism
A form of Romantic nationalism, it
envisioned the unification of all Slavs
into a single nation.
Russia saw itself as the defender of the
Southern Slavs, the New Rome, the
heir to Constantinople.
Russia
Peter Ilych Tchaikovsky’s “Marche
Slav” is the best example of PanSlavism I know of; it was written, in
fact, to raise money for medicine for
the Balkan War in 1876.
Tchaikovsky’s “1812 Overture” is
another example.
Pan-Germanism
The parallel form of Romantic
nationalism in Germany.
Probably better known than PanSlavism.
Pan-Germanism
The chief political spokesman of PanGermanism was the Pan-German
League, founded in 1894. It was
highly nationalist and racialist with a
strong colonial agenda. Nationalism
and imperialism are linked in their
minds.
Pan-Germanism
Members were well connected in
society, were vociferous, and their
language was quite intemperate. Some
of their ideas, especially the need for
Lebensraum, with its racial basis,
are inherited by the Nazis.
Pan-Germanism
The Kaiser’s interest in the Boer War
stems, in part, from Pan-Germanism.
Pan-Germanism
Members included the industrialist
Alfred von Hugenberg, the
sociologist Max Weber, the militarist
Friedrich von Bernhardi
Pan-Germanism
The best representative of the
nationalist-racialist emotions of PanGermanism is Richard Wagner,
especially in his Ring Cycle. The
intense emotionalism of “The Ride of
the Valkyries” may be juxtaposed with
“Marche Slav”
Russia
The presence of fellow Slavs in the
Balkans permits Russia to inject an
element of ideology in order to dress
up its national goals.
Russia and Austria-Hungary are
therefore natural enemies in the
Balkans
Russo-Japanese War
1904-5
.Russia completed the Trans-Siberian
Railroad in 1903, and obtained a 25
year lease of the Liaotung Peninsula,
extended its sphere of influence into
Manchuria, and began penetration of
Korea. This resulted in a conflict with
Japan.
Russo-Japanese War
1904-5
Japan and Russia are natural enemies
because of a mutual desire to influence
Manchuria and Korea
Russo-Japanese War
1904-5
Japanese launch a surprise attack on
the Russian Pacific fleet at Port
Arthur, and destroys it.
The Russian Baltic fleet is then
destroyed in the naval battle of
Tsushima Straits.
Russo-Japanese War
1904-5
As a result of grotesque mismanagement,
Russia loses the siege of Port Arthur.
Payments sufficient to supply an army of
1,000,000 men failed to sustain an army of
250,000. (Fleming 20)
The Russo-Japanese War exposed the
profound corruption of the Tsarist regime.
The Revolution of 1905
Widespread economic suffering
coupled with an unpopular war shook
the Tsarist regime to the core.
The Revolution of 1905
Bloody Sunday--a huge crowd of
workers in St. Petersburg sought to
deliver petitions to the Tsar. Nicholas
responded by having troops fire into
them, killing 1500 and wounded 3000
(Fleming 22). The "Little Father" had
turned on his own people
The Revolution of 1905
Peasants rebelled and looted manor
houses; workers went out on strike.
The sailors of the battleship
Potemkin rebelled. A council or
soviet of workers' deputies was
established in St. Petersburg and
emulated elsewhere. The empire was
paralyzed by a general strike in
October 1905.
The Revolution of 1905
Nicholas was forced to yield. His
October Manifesto granted freedom of
press, speech and assembly, and
granted a parliament, or Duma. No
laws were to be promulgated without
the Duma's consent. Russia had
become a constitutional monarchy.
The Revolution of 1905
The unrest is quelled by the use of
troops from the front, who remained
loyal to the Tsar.
One key difference between 1905 and
1917 is that the Tsar and later the
Kerensky government lost the support
of the troops in 1917.
Review
Bosporus and Dardanelles
Pan German League
Eastern Question
Bloody Sunday
Revolution of 1905
The Age of Bismarck
Realpolitik
“In a world of five powers, always be a
Trois”
“Every alliance has a horse and a rider. I
intend to be the horse.”
Bismarck's goal:
to isolate France and deny her allies which
could encircle Germany.
Treaty of Frankfurt 1871
Alsace-Lorraine
indemnity
Dreikaiserbund 1872
Eastern Crisis 1875-78
Treaty of San Stefano
“honest broker”
Treaty of Berlin
Cyprus
Bosnia-Herzegovina
Dual Alliance 1879
pledged mutual support in the event Russia
attacked either.
Renewal of the
Dreikaiserbund
committed all three to friendly neutrality in
the event of war with a fourth power (ie
France vs. Germany)
committed to consultation in the event of a
change in the status quo in the Balkans or
Ottoman Empire.
Triple Alliance 1882
between Austria-Hungary, Germany, and
Italy.
provided for mutual support in a war against
France (ie Germany vs France or Italy vs.
France) and
Italian neutrality in an Austrian-Russian
war.
Russo-German Reinsurance
Treaty 1887
provided for mutual neutrality in the event
of war with a third party except
for an aggressive war by Russia against Austria
or
an aggressive war by Germany against France
(ie if France attacks Germany or Austria attacks
Russia, the treaty is in force)
Russo-German Reinsurance
Treaty 1887
Donald Kagan, who believes that Germany
caused World War I, makes the point at this
stage, that, had Bismarck’s policies been
continued, Germany and Britain together
could have maintained the peace, regardless
of whether they had an alliance or not, so
long as both exerted themselves to prevent
war. (116-7) Bismarck wanted nothing
more; his successors did.
Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918)
Wilhelm II becomes the German Emperor
in 1888.
The grandson of Queen Victoria, he is
intelligent, but weak, headstrong,
vacillating, arrogant, shallow, neurotic and
suffered from an inferiority complex (the
result of a withered right arm).
Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918)
Unfortunately, Bismarck's constitution
allowed the Chancellor to govern without
parliamentary support, but not without the
Kaiser's. Constitutionally, the Kaiser ruled.
The system worked under Wilhelm I, who
understood his limitations and allowed
better men to govern. Under Wilhelm II,
the system leads to disaster.
Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918)
Bismarck is dismissed in 1890.
.Successors are
Gen. Georg von Caprivi (1890-94)
Prince Hohenlohe-Schillingsfuerst (1894-1900)
Count Bernhard von Bülow (1900-09)
Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg (190917)
Franco-Russian Alliance
Germany refuses to renew the Reinsurance
Treaty when it came up for renewal in 1890
just 5 days after Bismarck's dismissal. No
satisfactory reason for the refusal was ever
given to the Russians
Franco-Russian Alliance
Russia can only conclude that it must seek
allies elsewhere. This is the first and worst
blunder committed by Wilhelm II. France
is eager to offer herself to the Tsar.
Franco-Russian Alliance
If France is attacked by Germany or Italy
supported by Germany, or Russia attacked
by Germany or by Austria supported by
Germany, then the other will go to war to
assist its ally
Franco-Russian Alliance
The worst nightmare of the German General
Staff is now realized: Germany faces a
two-front war between France and Russia.
German military planning is now predicated
upon this assumption, and the terrible
problem of defense that it poses.
Franco-Russian Alliance
Massive French loans go to assist Russia in
improving its defenses and war-making
capacity. Russian military strength, always
potentially huge, was steadily increasing, in
spite of Tsarist inefficiency.
Franco-Russian Alliance
In turn, this alarms German military
planners, who eventually conclude around
1910 that if they must fight Russia at all,
they must fight them soon
Franco-Russian Alliance
This creates a self-fulfilling prophecy: (1)
war with France is inevitable (2) Russia is
allied with France (3) war with Russia is
inevitable (4) Russia is rapidly gaining
strength (5) it is better to fight Russia in
1914 than in 1918 when the rearmament
program would be completed.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
An Anglo-German alliance was possible in
the 1890's, since no vital interests clashed
directly. At the same time, there was very
real friction between England and Russia
over Persia, Afghanistan, and China and
between England and France over Egypt
and the Sudan.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
Kaiser blamed his withered arm on his
English mother, and hated England because
of it. The policy of a great nation is held
captive to an infantile personality
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
The Kaiser insists on a great navy. It is an
issue on which he refused to compromise,
even at the cost of domestic difficulties.
Given his constitutional position, this is an
awful mistake, on a level with allowing the
Russian treaty to lapse.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
German aspirations in Africa led them to
support the Boers in the Boer War 18991902. The Kaiser's frequent public
pronouncements were especially
inflammatory
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
The Kruger Telegram in 1895 sent to Paul
Kruger, the head of the Boer Transvaal
following the disastrous failure of the
Jameson Raid (instigated by Cecil Rhodes)
to seize the Transvaal for Great Britain,
proved to be very inflammatory.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
While my sympathies are entirely with the
Boers, who were attacked by Rhodes
freebooters, Great Britain was very
sensitive about their pre-eminent position
on the Cape of Good Hope, did not accept
Transvaal’s independence.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
The Kaiser’s language hinted strongly that
Germany would be willing to intervene on
behalf of the Boers at some future date.
The Kaiser followed up on this by other
inflammatory remarks during the Boer War
itself.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
Germany starts the arms race with the Navy
Law of 1898, beginning the construction of
a large, modern fleet.
The architect of this navy is Admiral
Alfred von Tirpitz
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
Tirpitz Espouses a "risk fleet": "in order
to protect German trade and commerce
under existing conditions, only one thing
will suffice, namely, Germany must possess
a battle fleet of such a strength that even for
the most powerful naval adversary, a war
would involve such risks as to make that
Power's own supremacy doubtful." (Turner
2)
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
Such a policy is foolish in the extreme,
since not even Tirpitz believed that
Germany could build a fleet capable of
defeating the Royal Navy. He seems to
have thought that the British would ally
themselves with Germany out of fear.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
The British could only view such
provocative actions with alarm, since the
only possible enemy was the Royal Navy.
Britain had already adopted the Two Power
Standard, ie the Royal Navy must be
strong enough to defeat any two other
navies.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
Germany is essentially a continental power.
A navy is therefore for them a frill. German
trade could flourish even in time of war,
provided that Great Britain were neutral.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
Great Britain was essentially a naval power.
Dominance of the high seas is a vital
national interest. It has no choice but to
respond to the German threat.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
When World War I finally broke out, it
turned out that Tirpitz, for all his bluster,
did not even have a war plan to use the
navy. The High Seas Fleet was largely
useless.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
This is the Kaiser's second worst blunder,
since it needlessly pushed England into the
arms of the French.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
England revolutionizes naval warfare by
laying down Dreadnought, the first
modern battleship, in 1905
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
Dreadnought employed turbine engines,
superimposed turrets, internal telephones,
electric motors to rotate the turrets, and the
latest in optics and range finding.
It was not only more powerful than any two
warships afloat, it was also the fastest
warship afloat.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
Germany (of course) follows suit and a
naval arms race develops.
Anglo-German Naval Rivalry
In 1909, the shipbuilding reached a peak.
Churchill wrote, “The Admiralty had
demanded six ships, the economists offered
four; and we finally compromised on
eight.” (Qtd in Kagan 156)
By 1912, England has 18 dreadnoughts,
Germany 9
Entente Cordiale 1904
Anglo-French colonial agreement 1904
resolves numerous points of friction.
England recognizes French dominance in
Morocco, France recognizes English
dominance in Egypt
First Moroccan Crisis 1905
Morocco had boundaries with France along
Algeria and also French West Africa.
Frequent tribal revolts in Morocco spilled
over into French territory. France had a
legitimate interest in Morocco. France
takes steps to establish a protectorate over
Morocco.
First Moroccan Crisis 1905
The Kaiser, visiting Tangier, supported
Moroccan independence, creating a
diplomatic uproar. He seems to have
thought that he could break up the Entente
Cordiale.
First Moroccan Crisis 1905
After the forced resignation of the French
Foreign Minister, Del Cassé, , Germany
demands a conference at Algeciras
The Algeciras Conference 1906
England, Italy, Russia, Spain, the U.S. all
join France against Germany. Only Austria
supports Germany. Technically, Moroccan
independence is preserved, but the police
was placed under French and Spanish
control and a French controlled state bank
established.
The Algeciras Conference 1906
The Entente Cordiale is strengthened,
Great Britain now begins to make
concessions to strengthen the balance of
power in Europe, and Germany sees Austria
as its only reliable ally.
Anglo-Russian Treaty 1907
England's interest in Afghanistan is
recognized, Tibet is neutral, and Persia
divided between England and Russia.
Anglo-Russian Treaty 1907
Germany is alarmed and feels that it needs
Austria more than ever
.British concern over Germany has led it to
seek reconciliation with its most persistent
enemy since 1815.
.Russia, weakened by the Russo-Japanese
War, also wants to reduce the list of its
enemies.
Triple Entente 1907
Franco-Russian Treaty, Entente Cordiale,
and Anglo-Russian Entente together create
a de facto Triple Entente against the Triple
Alliance
Bosnian Crisis 1908-09
The Young Turk rebellion breaks out in the
Ottoman Empire, which causes temporary
confusion but also promises a revival of
Turkish power, a prospect displeasing to
both Austria and Russia.
Bosnian Crisis 1908-09
The Austrian Foreign Minister Count Alois
Aerenthal and Russian Foreign Minister
Alexander Izvolsky meet and agree that
Austria should annex Bosnia-Herzegovina
(a Turkish province) and Russia should
open the Straits for warships. No date,
however, was set.
Bosnian Crisis 1908-09
Austria-Hungary unilaterally annexes
Bosnia-Herzegovina, taking everyone by
surprise.
Britain coldly refuses to allow Russian
warships the freedom of the Straits. Russia
thus is denied its portion of the agreement.
Bosnian Crisis 1908-09
Russia, weakened by the Russo-Japanese
War, has no choice but to give in, but feels
humiliated and will be less willing to back
down in future
Agadir Crisis 1911
Austria seeks German assurances. Helmut
von Moltke the Younger, the Chief of
the German General Staff, replies "the
moment Russia mobilizes, Germany will
also mobilize, and will unquestionably
mobilize her whole army." (Turner 8)
Moltke also predicts that Austria would,
sooner or later, have to invade Serbia.
Agadir Crisis 1911
.Conrad von Hötzendorf, the Austrian
Chief of Staff, complains bitterly that
by not invading Serbia, Austria had
lost its chance, and would eventually
have to fight a multi-front war.
Daily Telegraph Interview 1908
During the same week as the Bosnian
Crisis was precipitated, the Kaiser’s
lengthy interview with a London
newspaper was published. The
Kaiser’s attempt to improve relations
with Great Britain had precisely the
opposite effect;
Daily Telegraph Interview 1908
his language demonstrated, in the
words of his own foreign minister, “the
Emperor’s intellectual extravagance,
his incoherent disregard for facts, his
complete lack of political moderation
and balance, combined with an
excessive urge towards . . . display.”
(Massie 686)
Second Moroccan Crisis
(Agadir Crisis) 1911
German fell under the control of Foreign
Secretary Alfred von Kiderlen-Wächter
.French control of Morocco led to a serious
revolt in Fez. The French respond by
moving in troops.
Agadir Crisis 1911
Kiderlen-Waechter believes he can use the
crisis as an excuse to obtain concessions
from France in Africa. Had he waited,
however, the new French Prime Minister,
Caillaux, would have made an offer without
prompting. In another example of sheer
stupidity, the Germans force the issue.
Agadir Crisis 1911
The Kaiser dispatches the gunboat Panther
to the port of Agadir on the Atlantic in order
to "protect German lives" although there
were no Germans within 70 miles.
.Germany demands the French Congo
Agadir Crisis 1911
David Lloyd George's Mansion House
speech insisted that Britain be consulted.
This was all the more shocking to the
Germans because Lloyd George had not
consulted the Cabinet (so there was no
warning) and Lloyd George was known to
be pro-German
Agadir Crisis 1911
France cedes the French Congo to the
Germans in return for German recognition
of French claims in Morocco
The Haldane Mission 1912
The Germans passed a new Navy Bill
in early 1912.
Bethmann-Hollweg hoped to put an
end to the naval arms race, and invited
negotiations. The Cabinet sent Lord
Haldane, who was friendly to
Germany.
The Haldane Mission 1912
Tirpitz, supported by the Kaiser, (Kagan
176-7) sabotaged the negotiations by
demanding that Britain accept neutrality in
any Franco-German conflict but also accept
German naval aspirations. The Kaiser
wrote, “I have shown the British that, when
they touch our armaments, they bite on
granite.” (177)
The Haldane Mission 1912
A direct consequence of this diplomatic
disaster was the Anglo-French Naval
Agreement: Not only did Churchill, First
Lord of the Admiralty, announce a naval
increase, but France agreed to concentrate
hser fleet in the Mediterranean while Great
Britain moved most of its fleet to the North
Sea and the Atlantic;
The Haldane Mission 1912
this is significant in that it de facto
commits England to the defense of the
French Channel ports, and amounts to
an implicit alliance
The Balkan Wars
Italy vs. Turkey 1911 over Tripoli, reveals
Turkish weakness
The First Balkan War 1912
Russia sees an opportunity and brokers the
Serbo-Bulgarian Treaty of 1912 which
formed the basis of the Balkan League.
The First Balkan War 1912
Raymond Poincaré, on an official visit to St.
Petersburg, correctly sees the treaty not only
as a sword against Turkey, but Austria.
Russia’s objective was an alliance to assist
them against Austria. (Kagan 178)
Poincaré points out Russian military
weakness. One result is very large French
loans to Russia in 1913
The First Balkan War 1912
The client states, however, had their own
agenda–to drive Turkey out of Europe and
to acquire territory. The Balkan League,
consisting of Serbia, Bulgaria, Montenegro,
and Greece attacked Turkey.
The First Balkan War 1912
Serbia wanted ports on the Adriatic from
Albania; Montenegro wanted territory in
Albania; Bulgaria wanted Constantinople;
Greece wanted as much as they could get.
The First Balkan War 1912
The Turks are quickly overwhelmed and
almost driven out of Europe, retaining only
Constantinople
The First Balkan War 1912
The victory of the Balkan League
demonstrates Russian ascendancy in the
Balkans and undermined Austrian security.
Military men privately counted the bayonets
of the Balkan League and added them to
Russia's total.
The First Balkan War 1912
A. J. P. "Taylor says: 'The victory of
Balkan nationalism was a disaster beyond
remedy for the Habsburg Monarchy.' This
was fully appreciated by the Austrian
General Staff." (Turner 40)
The First Balkan War 1912
Austria and Italy, fearing a Southern Slavic
nation on the Adriatic, force Serbia to give
up Albania, which had been a Serbian war
objective
The First Balkan War 1912
Germany emphatically assures Austria of
their support against Russia. Had Russia
been ready to fight, war would have broken
out in 1912.
.The Russian War Minister Ger. V.
Sukhomlinov proposes a partial
mobilization against Austria. He is
overruled
The First Balkan War 1912
Two quotes should be borne in mind:
French Gen. Boisdeffre to Alexander III in
1892: "Mobilization means war.“
Minister of Finance V. N. Kokovzov: "no
matter what we chose to call the projected
measures, a mobilization remained a
mobilization, to be countered by our
adversaries by actual war." (Turner 45-6)
The First Balkan War 1912
Bulgaria had seized Thrace and Macedonia,
but now Serbia and Greece want
compensation in Macedonia
The Second Balkan War 1913
Bulgaria versus Greece, Serbia and
Rumania
.Bulgaria is quickly defeated after attacking
Greece and Serbia
.Greece, Serbia, and Rumania all gain
territory at Bulgarian expense
.War is seen as a victory for Russia and a
defeat for Austria
Review
Risk Fleet
Agadir Crisis
Schlieffen Plan
Russo-German Reinsurance Treaty
First Balkan War
The Summer of 1914
Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to
the Austrian throne, is assassinated by a
Serbian nationalist, Gavrilo Princip, at
Sarajevo on June 28, 1914.
.The Serbian government was aware of the
plot.
.
The Summer of 1914
However, Austrian police found no
evidence of the complicity of the Serbian
government, although it was planned by the
head of Serbian Intelligence (who was also
the leader of the terrorist organization, The
Black Hand)
The Summer of 1914
Franz Ferdinand was not well liked by the
Austrian court. Personally, he was difficult
to get along with, and hated because of his
morganatic marriage..
The Summer of 1914
Radicals on both sides feared his accession
to the throne because he was believed to
support a Triple Monarchy, granting the
South Slavs equal status with the Germans
and Magyars within the Empire
The Summer of 1914
The assassination hit the Kaiser very hard,
who regarded Franz Ferdinand as a friend as
well as royalty. The Kaiser urged Austria to
make war on Serbia.
The Summer of 1914
.However, it is clear that the Kaiser
believed that it would be a purely local war,
since Germany made absolutely no attempts
to prepare for a war between July 6 and 23.
The Summer of 1914
He did not, for instance, consult either
Moltke or the industrialists. He did,
however, take a three week vacation on the
royal yacht! Tirpitz was in Switzerland,
and Moltke taking a cure!
The Summer of 1914
Austria sees a chance to crush Serbian
nationalism once and for all, and delivers an
ultimatum which they did not expect (or
want) to be met.
The Summer of 1914
.Serbia mobilizes her army on July 25, but
replies brilliantly to the impossible Austrian
demands. Upon reading it, the Kaiser noted
that all cause for war had vanished.
The Summer of 1914
Russia begins taking preliminary steps to
mobilization July 26, which of course,
could not be kept secret. According to the
testimony of one Russian general, war had
already been decided, and the diplomatic
flurries were mere window dressing.
(Turner 96)
The Summer of 1914
To a large degree this is true. The military
men were dominated by timetables and
mobilization plans.
The Summer of 1914
In addition, the Schlieffen Plan placed
severe restrictions on Germany's room to
maneuver. In a moment of national crisis,
the demands of the generals will dominate
the statesmen.
The Summer of 1914
Without bothering to read the Serbian reply,
Austria mobilizes against Serbia July 25.
.In an act of national insanity, German
Chancellor Bethmann Hollweg urged a
swift Austrian declaration of war on Serbia.
The Summer of 1914
He seems to have thought that a declaration
would present Europe with a fait accompli
and that, therefore, the war would be
localized. He had absolutely no grasp
whatever of the significance of mobilization
The Summer of 1914
Mobilization plans were elaborate, requiring
the call-up of reserves, their arming and
distribution to jump off points.
The Summer of 1914
Mobilization would involve huge numbers
of citizens, and disrupt the economy
seriously, and could only be employed in
dire emergency. It was thought that, once
begun, mobilization was irreversible.
The Summer of 1914
Speed in mobilization was essential,
especially in the case of Germany, lest an
enemy's attack, using his reserves, should
catch one without full mobilization.
The Summer of 1914
As an unavoidable result of Germany's
geographic location, she would have to fight
a war of central position. Lost time, in the
judgement of the entire German officer
corps, would be fatal.
The Summer of 1914
.Mobilization universally regarded by
military men as tantamount to a declaration
of war.
The Summer of 1914
The statesmen, far from seeing war as a
continuation of policy by violent means,
had totally divorced themselves from
military plans.
The Summer of 1914
The soldiers, rather than accepting that the
statesmen would dictate their objectives,
divorced themselves from diplomacy. Both
groups were totally ignorant of the aims and
problems of the other.
The Summer of 1914
July 27, the French call officers in from
leave, and the British bring the Home Fleet
to a war footing. Obviously, the war would
not be local.
The Summer of 1914
.Apparently resigned to an inevitable war
with Russia and France, Bethmann Hollweg
gambles on British neutrality. (Turner 102)
He conceals the full gravity of the situation
from the Kaiser, who was still at sea.
The Lights Go Out All Over
Europe
Austria declares war on Serbia on July 28
.This decision is incredibly foolish. The
Austrian Chief of Staff, Conrad von
Hötzendorf, vigorously pointed out that Austria
could not actually invade Serbia until August
12, when its own mobilization would be
complete.
The Lights Go Out All Over
Europe
.With the Austrian declaration of war,
events begin to move automatically, and can
no longer be stopped.
The Lights Go Out All Over
Europe
Russian mobilization measures proceed
vigorously. Nicholas at one point ordered
full mobilization and then ordered partial
mobilization against Austria in the hopes of
keeping Germany neutral. At the insistence
of his generals, he reversed himself again.
The Lights Go Out All Over
Europe
It really made no difference. The threat
from Russia would force full Austrian
mobilization, which in turn would be, as
Moltke pointed out to his government, a
casus foederis.
The Lights Go Out All Over
Europe
If Germany must fight, then they must
implement the Schlieffen Plan, which
required the seizure Liége within 24 hours.
The military has taken complete control
over events.
The Lights Go Out All Over
Europe
Germany, alarmed at Russian mobilization,
declares war on Russia on August 1; after
seeking assurances of French neutrality, and
not receiving them (to be honest, an
examination of their demands makes it
difficult to take the Germans seriously),
Germany declares war on France on August
3
The Lights Go Out All Over
Europe
Germany invades neutral Belgium, whose
territorial integrity Germany was pledged to
protect, on August 4
The Lights Go Out All Over
Europe
England, in accordance with its treaty with
Belgium, and in accordance to historic
English interests, declares war on Germany
August 4
War Guilt: Harry Elmer Barnes
1927
“The general European system after 1870,
based as it was upon nationalism,
militarism, secret alliances, and
imperialistic aims, naturally inclined Europe
toward war.
War Guilt: Harry Elmer Barnes
1927
The system does not, however, explain why
war came in 1914, as the same general
European situation had been prevailing for
many years prior to that time, though
certain problems had become more acute in
the years immediately preceding the World
War, particularly in the Near East and
Morocco. . . .
War Guilt: Harry Elmer Barnes
1927
In estimating the order or guilt of the
various countries we may safely say that the
only direct and immediate responsibility for
the World War falls upon France and
Russia, with the guilt about equally
distributed.
War Guilt: Harry Elmer Barnes
1927
Next in order—far below France and
Russia—would come Austria, though she
never desired a general European war.
Finally, we should place Germany and
England as tied for last place, both being
opposed to war in the 1914 crisis.” (Barnes
651, 659)
War Guilt: Fritz Fischer 1967
“As Germany willed and coveted the
Austro-Serbian war, and, in her confidence
in her military superiority, deliberately
faced the risk of a conflict with Russia and
France, her leaders must bear a substantial
share of the historical responsibility for the
outbreak of general war in 1914.” (Fischer
88)
War Guilt: Immanuel Geiss 1967
“There was no ‘encirclement’ of Germany
by enemies waiting to attack and crush her.
The partition of Europe and the world into
two power blocks, with the Triple Entente
on the one hand, the Triple Alliance on the
other, was largely a result of German
policy,
War Guilt: Immanuel Geiss 1967
“of the German desire to raise the Reich
from the status of a continental power to
that of a world power. . . . Looking back on
the events from the mid-sixties, the
outbreak of the first world war looks like
the original example of faulty
brinkmanship,
War Guilt: Immanuel Geiss 1967
“of rapid escalation in a period of history
when the mechanisms of alliances and
mobilization schedules could still work
unchecked by fear of the absolute weapon
and the absolute destruction its use would
bring in what would now be the third world
war.” Geiss 76, 87)
War Guilt: Lawrence Lafore
1971
“These needs and tensions [AlsaceLorraine, Anglo-German Naval Rivalry,
Constantinople, German encirclement] had
underlaid the tensions of Europe and had
shaped the alliance system and the policies
of the Powers.
War Guilt: Lawrence Lafore
1971
“But they none of them had led to actions
that produced war. They were either
negotiable or repressible. The one problem
that was neither negotiable nor repressible
was that raised by threats to the integrity of
Austria-Hungary.
War Guilt: Lawrence Lafore
1971
“The composition of the Habsburg
Monarchy made it fatally vulnerable to the
activities of the Serbs; at the same time, it
made it difficult to eliminate those activities
by rapid and resolute action;
War Guilt: Lawrence Lafore
1971
“and it made it difficult for the government
of Austria-Hungary–or its ally, Germany–to
retreat, to equivocate, to delay, once the
decision to take action had been made, ill
defined and unsatisfactory as the decision
was. It was this problem that caused the
war which became the first World War.”
(Lafore 268)
Interpretive Questions
Why would Harry Elmer Barnes place chief
responsibility for the outbreak of World
War I upon France and Russia and not on
Germany?
Interpretive Questions
What actions taken by Germany led
Imanuel Geiss to conclude that Germany’s
own policies resulted in two hostile power
blocks in Europe.
Interpretive Questions
Why does Laurence Lafore argue that
threats to the integrity of Austria-Hungary
could not be negotiated or suppressed?
Interpretive Questions
Some historians believe that the First World
War was the result of the “German
Question;” others that it is the result of the
“Eastern Question;” still others that it is the
result of a failure of diplomacy. Which
interpretation do you favor and why
The End!!!!