Transcript International Relations Theory and the Middle East

The Emergence of the Middle East into
the Modern State System
-Week 3-
Historical Overview of the Modern Middle
East -1
The Ottoman Empire sides with
Germany during World War I. The
resulting loss causes the empire to be
1914-1918 - broken up. Much of its territory is
divided between France and Britain, but
modern day Turkey successfully
defends itself against Greek invasion.
The Sykes-Picot agreement between France
and Britain secretly promises to divide
- 1916
Ottoman holdings in the Middle East
between the nations.
Historical Overview of the Modern Middle
East -2
July 1915-March 1916
-
The Sharif Hussein-McMahon
Correspondences between Sir
Hanry McMahon, British High
Commisioner of Cairo, and the
Sherif Hussein of Mecca
apparently
promise
Arab
independence in large portions
of the Middle East, including
Palestine, which is today Israel.
The Balfour Declaration by the British clearly
expresses support for a Jewish state in Palestine,
clearly at odds with the earlier McMahon
Correspondences.
-
November 2, 1917
Historical Overview of the Modern Middle
East -3
1918
-.
Surrender of Ottoman forces and
occupation of Ottoman territory by
Entente powers following the Armistice
of Moudros ( 30 Oct. 1918)
1919
-
Paris Peace Conference of the Entente
victors following the end of World War I
to set the peace terms for the defeated
Central Powers following the armistices
of 1918.Several treaties including Sevres
with Ottoman Empire was also
prepared.
King-Crane commission as the first-ever
survey of Arab public opinion
1920
-
Anglo-French partition of former Arab
territories of the Ottoman Empire
agreed at San Remo.
Turkish Borders according to Misak-i Milli (National
Pact) of 28 January1920
Borders of Turkey according to the Treaty of Sèvres (1920) which was annulled
and replaced by the Treaty of Lausanne (1923) as a consequence of the Turkish
War of Independence led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk.
The Turkish Army's entry into Izmir on September 9, 1922,
following the successful Izmir Offensive, effectively sealed the
Turkish victory and ended the war.
Borders of Turkey set by the Treaty of Lausanne (24 July
1923)
Historical Overview of the Modern Middle
East -4
Febuary 8, 1922
-
Partial independence for Egypt
and
election
of
Wafd
government headed by Sa’d
Zaghul
-
October 29, 1923
Mustafa Kemal(Ataturk) declared that
Turkey would be a republic and renamed it
as the Republic of Turkey .
On 29 October 1923, the new name of the
nation and its status as a republic was
declared. After that, a vote occurred in the
Grand National Assembly of Turkey and
Atatürk was selected as the 1st president of
the Republic of Turkey by unanimous vote
.
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The Republic of Turkey becomes indepedendent on 29 October 1923
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Historical Overview of the Modern
Middle East -3
1929
-
The White Paper, released by
the British, placed severe limits
on Jewish immigration into
Palestine and stated that the
British government did not plan
for Palestine to become a
Jewish state. This proclamation
was obviously in contradiction
with the Balfour Declaration.
Iraq gains its independence.
-
1932
1932
-
Saudi Arabiagains its
independence.
The Peel Commission from Britain reports
that great tension exists between Jews and
Muslims and suggests a plan of partition for
the region.
-
1937
November 26, 1941
-
Lebanon gains its
independence.
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Historical Overview of the Modern
Middle East -4
Jordan gains its independence.
1947
The State of Israel declares its
independence immediately following the
end of the British mandate. Immediately
after that, the surrounding Arab nations
invaded the new State of Israel. Following
the war the Arab League placed an
embargo, or prohibition against trading, on
Israel.
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-
1946
-
With the British mandate, a right
to administer over the region of
Palestine soon expiring, the UN
proposes a plan of partition for
the region, which would create
both a Jewish state and an Arab
state when the British mandate
runs out.
-
May 14, 1948
The Arab Entry into International System
• Prior to World War I, Arab lands had
been either under Ottoman rule or
colonized by European powers.
• Experiences under the Ottomans meant
that the Arab people were prepared for
statehood and administration.
• However,
less
familiarity
with
diplomacy, which under the Ottoman
Empire had centred around Istanbul.
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Wartime Plans for the Partition of the
Middle East
Britain’s three wartime pledges:
1) McMahon-Hussein (1915-1916)
2) Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916)
3) Balfour Declaration (1917)
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McMahon-Hussein (1915-1916)
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1) McMahon-Hussein (1915-1916) – 1
• At onset of the war as immediate concern of Entente
powers was how the people in the Ottoman (Arab)
provinces would react to call for a jihad by the sultan-
caliphate.
• An Arab revolt against the Ottomans would aid the
allied war effort in the ME front.
• For much a revolt, the key figure to cooperate with was
Sharif of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali of the Hashemite
family.
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McMahon-Hussein (1915-1916) – 2
• The McMahon-Hussein correspondence (July 14,
1915 to Jan 31, 1916) set the terms of an Arab
revolt.
• In return for entering the war on the allied side,
Hussein was assured that a large portion of
Ottoman-Arab
territory
would
independent under his leadership.
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be
made
McMahon-Hussein (1915-1916) – 3
• In a letter dated the 24th of October, 1915, Sir
Henry McMahon promises Hussein to
"recognise and support the independence of the
Arabs within the territories proposed by him."
• These territories included the Arabian peninsula,
Syria (including Lebanon, Palestine, and
Transjordan), and Iraq as "purely Arab" areas
and part of a future Arab state or states in the
region.
• The fate of Palestine was left ambiguous in the
correspondence.
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2) Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) -1
• The success of the British in promoting the Arab revolt
by promises of independence did not prevent it from
completing negotiations with France, which created a
new division of western influence in the ME.
• According to secret the Sykes-Picot agreement, the
French controlled where is now Syria and Northern
Iraq and South East of Turkey.
• In return, The British were to receive what is now most
of Iraq and Jordan.
• Palestine was to become an international zone.
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Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916) -2
• The terms of this agreement were revealed to
Hussein by the Russians during the war.
• The British managed to calm his fears by
minimizing the documents importance.
• However, this agreement formed the basis of
the postwar divisions.
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3) Balfour Declaration (1917) -1
• Although the future of Palestine was unclear
under the MacMahon-Hussein agreement it
seemed that it would become an independent
Arab state.
• Whereas, the Sykes-Picot agreement called
for Palestine to become internationalized.
• Finally on No. 2,1917, the British gave formal
support to the aspirations of the World Zionist
Organization to establish a Jewish national
home in Palestine.
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Balfour Declaration (1917) -2
• The Balfour declaration (1917) confirmed the
British support for “the establishment in
Palestine of a national home for the Jewish
people.”
• This declaration, contradicted both the pledge
to Sharif
Hussein and the Sykes-Picot
agreement and further complicated the post
war settlements.
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Post-War Settlement 1919-1922
1) Paris Peace Conference (1919)
2) San Remo Resolution (1920)
3) The Sharifian Solution (1921)
• .
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Two features of the post-war settlement
1) The weak bargaining position of the Arab
delegates at Paris Peace Conference
2) The duplicity of the great powers. For British
and French, the territories of the Ottoman
empire were spoils of war. On the other hand,
naively, the US endevoured to reform the
new order on the basis of liberal views which
is set out by President wilson in 14 principles
with an emphasis on self-determination.
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The 12th point of Wilson Principles
“The Turkish portion of the present Ottoman
Empire
should
be
assured
a
secure
sovereignity, but the other nationalities, which
are now under turkish rule should be assured
autonomous development.”
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Paris Peace Conference (1919)
• The Entente victors to set the peace terms for
the defeated Central Powers following the
armistices of 1918.Several treaties including
Sevres with Ottoman Empire was also
prepared.
• In light of the previously secret Sykes-Picot
Agreement, and following the adoption of the
mandate system on the Arab province of the
former Ottoman lands, the conference heard
statements from competing Zionist and Arab
claimants.
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"The Big Four" during the Paris Peace Conference (from left to right,
David Lloyd George, Vittorio Orlando, Georges Clemenceau, Woodrow
Wilson)
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The King-Crane Commission (1919)
• President Woodrow Wilson recommended an
international
commission
of
inquiry
to
ascertain the wishes of the local inhabitants.
• King-Crane Commission repudiates Balfour
Declaration and Sykes-Picot Agreement, but
is ignored
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San Remo Resolution (April 25,1920)
• Britain and France reach agreement over
Arab lands.
• France receives mandates over Lebanon,
Syria. Britain receives mandates over Iraq,
Palestine.
• The Mandate for Palestine was based the
Balfour Declaration and the Covenant of the
League of Nation's Article 22. Britain was
charged with establishing a "national home
for the Jewish people" in Palestine.
• Territorial boundaries were not decided until
four years after.
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San Remo Delegation
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British Mandate of Iraq – 1
• Britain had, with some modifications, met
its commitments to both the Sykes-picott
and the Balfour declaration.
• Only the promises to the Hashemites had
been disregarded. At the end of 1920,
Britain offered the son of Sahrif Hussein,
Faisal, to control its Iraqi mandate, in
return for his acceptance of ME division in
San Remo.
• This plan came to be known as the
“sharifian solution” (1921).
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Coronation of Prince Faisal as King of
Iraq, 1921
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British Mandate of Iraq - 2
• The mandate united the three disparate
provinces under the imported Hashimite King
Faisal, from the Hijaz region of Arabia.
• Apart
from
its
natural
geographical
differences, the new Iraq was a complex mix
of ethnic and religious groups.
• In implementing their mandate, the British
had certainly sown the seeds of future unrest.
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British Mandates – Palestine and
Transjordan – 1
• In Palestine, The British cut palestinian
mandate into two parts.
• Retained the more fertile and politically
sensitive area in the west of the river Jordan,
keeping for its name Palestine.
• The rest was handed to the brother of King of
Iraq Faisal, Abdullah, as the Emirate of
Transjordan.
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Emir Abdullah of Transjordan, Herbert Samuel, and Winston Churchill
at a reception at the Government House, Jerusalem, Palestine, (28 Mar
1921)
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From Transjordan to the Hashemite
Kingdom of Jordan – 1
• Not withstanding these restrictions, Iraq’s
emergence
into
the
community
of
independent states was the envy of the Arab
world.
• The only other Arab State to negotiate the
end of its mandate was Transjordan.
• Relatively long duration of the mandate,
around 30 years, reflects the low level of
opposition to what was infact a very light
British presence.
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From Transjordan to the Hashemite
Kingdom of Jordan – 2
• Emir Abdullah secured his rule over the
Transjordan and was maintained on a modest
british subsidiary.
• In 1936, a treaty gave Transjordan, a nominal
independence, leaving financial, military and
foreign affairs in British’s hands.
• Abdullah won full independence, for his
country after the WWII in 1946 and changed
its name to the Hashemite Kingdom of
Jordan.
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British Mandate of Palestine – 1
• If Iraq was the most successful British
mandate and the Transjordan the easiest,
Palestine prove the most unsuccessful and
difficult of British Colonial possessions in the
ME.
• The origins of the problem may be traced to
the contradictions inherent in the Balfour
Declaration.
• The mandate structure and the Jewish
nationalist ideology of Zionism gave rise to an
active Palestinian nationalist movement.
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British Mandate of Palestine – 2
• Palestinian resisted to the mandate and
refusal to participate in its institutions
prevented the building of any enduring state
structures.
• The Jewish community in Palestine
cooperated fully with the British and initiated
a process of state building.
• In essence the Palestinians could force
changes in British policy only through
confrontation.
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Palestine disturbances 1936
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British Mandate of Palestine – 3
• Riots and armend revolt years (1936-39) led
to the 1939 “White paper” that promised
reducing
Jewish
immigration
and
independence to Palestinians.
• The paper was rejected by the Zionists and
several radical jewish groups engaged in
terrorist campaigns against British authorities
in Palestine.
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British Mandate of Palestine – 4
• In 1947, Britain decided to withdraw and
refered the issue to the UN for resolution.
• This decision and the decleration of Israel
raged within Palestine and exploded into the
first Arab-Israeli war in 1948.
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David Ben-Gurion proclaiming Israeli
independence on 14 May 1948
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French Mandates of Syria and Lebanon-1
• Merged the former autonomous provinces of
Mountain Lebanon, plus the provinces of North
Lebanon, south Lebanon and the historical part of
Syria, thereafter, proclaimed the state of the great
Lebanon in 1920.
• The aim was to create the largest territorial area for
Christians in the region.
• While this plan was opposed by Sunni Muslims, the
French colonial power enjoyed the strong support
of their Maronite allies and other Christian
communities.
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French Mandates of Syria and Lebanon- 2
• The Lebanese republic was founded in 1926, with
an elected chamber of deputies and a president.
• While the Lebanese enjoyed autonomy in
domestic
affairs,
France
assumed
full
responsibility for Lebanese foreign affairs and
defense.
• A range of nationalist movements pulled Lebanon
in different directions, some calling for Lebanon to
be reattached to Syria, while others sought for full
independence.
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French Mandates of Syria and Lebanon- 3
• The French enjoyed virtually no indigenous support in
their Syrian mandate. Subsequent effort to break Syria
provoked fierce opposition.
• The end of the mandates in Syria and Lebanon
followed similar paths.
• Early in WWII, in 1941, British and free French forces
invaded Lebanon and Syria to pull them away from the
influence of Vichy France.
• By declaring war on Germany in 1945, both Syria and
Lebanon were invited to the UN and became full
independent following French withdrawal.
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Distinct experiences with colonialism, but
common legacies
• Supremacy of imperial powers over
foreign policy means that politics are
overwhelmingly domestic.
• Tension between nation-state and Arab
nation.
• Rivalries and factionalism between
states(i.e. Arab responses to Palestine
Crisis).
• Both stable states and enduring
problems.
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Thanks
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