Transcript The Age of Religious Wars

The Age of Religious Wars
The French Wars on Religion
These were wars which began with hostilities
in 1562 and continued until the Edict of
Nantes in 1598.
"Une foi, un loi, un roi," (one faith, one law,
one king). This traditional saying summed
up the connectedness of the state, society,
and religion in the minds of the French
people.
Since the times of Clovis, the French
monarchy had tied itself closely with the
church. The Church sanctified its right to
rule in exchange for military and civil
protection.
When Henri II died suddenly in 1559, he left an
enormous power vacuum at the heart of social
authority in France.
Henri II was the last powerful Valois
Three weak sons followed:
Francis II
Charles IX
Henri III
Catherine de Medici controlled the sons:
Was mother to the boys
Played both sides in the civil war
Developed a reputation for cruelty
Catherine de Medici
Francis II & His Wife, Mary Stuart
The House of Guise moved in. François II,
although only 15, was married to Mary
Queen of Scots
This greatly threatened the House of
Montmorency, an ancient line which had
enjoyed great political prominence under
Henri II AND the Bourbons, who as the first
princes of the blood had the rights of
tutorship over a minor king. François II was
not technically a minor (14 was the age of
majority), but he was young and sickly and
no one expected much from him.
These dynastic tensions interweave with the
religious and social ones.
The Bourbon princes were Protestant, and although
the constable de Montmorency was Catholic,
his nephews, the Châtillon brothers
(including Admiral de Coligny) were
Protestants.
The Guise identified themselves strongly as
defenders of the Catholic faith and formed an
alliance with Montmorency and the
Marechal St. André to form the "Catholic
triumvirate."
So, by the 1560s, as many as 1/3 of the French people
were Protestants.
The growth of the Roman Catholic Church had eroded
its power, both religious and political.
In 1560, Charles IX (1550-1574), a Roman Catholic, rose
to power in France after his sickly brother Francis
II’s death.
But since he was just 10 years old at the time, the
country was ruled by a regent, his mother, Catherine
de Medici (1519-1589).
Catherine was a descendant of the powerful Medici
family of Florence and, as the wife of King Henry II
(1519-1559), the queen of France.
Even after Charles IX reached the age of majority,
she continued to dominate him.
The French Civil War
 There were two sides:
 Guise family led Catholics in North
 Bourbon family led Huguenots (French Protestants)
in South
 Fighting for the royal inheritance
 Catherine supported the Guises in the first
phase.
By 1572 Catherine feared the growing
influence that another person, Admiral
Gaspard de Coligny, had on her son, the king.
Coligny was the leader of the Huguenots, the
French Protestants, and, in fact he did hold
sway over Charles IX.
To remove this threat, Catherine authorized a
plot by Roman Catholic nobles to assassinate
Coligny.
On August 18, Catherine’s daughter, Margaret
of Valois was married to Henry of Navarre, a
Huguenot.
The royal event brought many Huguenots to Paris.
On August 22, an attempt was made on Coligny’s life
but he survived.
Catherine feared that an investigation into the
attack on Coligny would reveal her role in it. She
therefore gave approval to a wider plan to
exterminate Huguenots, and she convinced her
son, Charles IX, to order it.
According to French statesman and historian JacquesAuguste de Thou, the order stated that “it was the
will of the king, that, according to God’s will, they
should take vengeance on the band of rebels (the
Huguenots) while they had the beast in the toils.”
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
The massacre began with the toll of a palace bell on
August 24.
Those who carried out the killings on the Huguenot
leaders identified themselves with white armbands
and a white cross on their hats.
Coligny was among the first victims, but Protestants
throughout Paris were targeted.
About 20,000 would perish in the city, causing the
river of the Seine to run red.
This plot which launched a mass extermination, fueled
the hatred between Catholics and Protestants.
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre
The French Civil War
 Catherine started supporting the Bourbons.
Catholic
League
CIVIL
WAR
Protestant
Union
 Henri of Navarre defeated Catholic League &
becomes Henry IV of France.
 Effects of Civil War:




France was left divided by religion
Royal power had weakened
Valois family now replaced by Bourbons
Did not grant religious freedom for all!
War of the 3 Henries
Henri of Navarre
Henri III
3rd duc de Guise

aka
Henri IV
1576
first Bourbon
Henri de
Lorraine
serves after Charles IX
Last of the Valois
begins Catholic
League
Henry IV of
France
 Ended Spanish interference in
France
 Converted to Catholicism :




Did this to compromise and make
peace
Paris is worth a mass.
This was an example of politique
[the interest of the state comes
first before any religious
considerations]
Fighting for the royal inheritance
 Passed Edict of Nantes in 1598:


Granted religious rights to
Huguenots
Did not grant religious freedom for
all
Philip II-Spanish Ruler
Heir to the Catholic and militarily supreme
western Habsburg kingdom
His father, Charles V, had given the eastern
Hapsburg lands of Austria, Bohemia, and
Hungary to Philip’s uncle, the emperor
Ferdinand I.
These lands, together with the
imperial title, remained in the
possession of the Austrian
branch of the family until 1918.
Pillars of Spanish Strength
1.
2.
3.
4.
Spanish colonies in the New World provided wealth.
(Ex: silver mines in modern day Bolivia and
Mexico)
Huge gap between the wealthy haves and the have
nots. Despite the peasantry being the backbone of
Philip’s empire.
Philip organized the lesser nobility into a loyal and
efficient bureaucracy.
He was also a pious Catholic, although some popes
suspected him of using religion for political and
devotional purposes.
El Escorial: a palace, church tomb, and monastery
Philip was a patron of the arts and culture as
seen by his unique retreat outside of Madrid.
Monastery Gardens
During first half of Philip’s reign, he focused on the
Mediterranean and the Turkish threat.
Spain had traditionally been a champion against the
Turks:
1560s: Turks advance into Austria and fleets dominate
the Mediterranean sea
1568-1570: armies under Philip’s half-brother, Don John
of Austria (illegitimate son of Charles V),
suppressed and dispersed the Moors in Granada
May 1571: a Holy League -Spain, Venice, Genoa, and
pope, under Don John’s command focused on Turks
in Mediterranean
*Largest naval battle of 16th century, Don John versus
Ottoman navy under Ali Pasha
The Revolt in the Netherlands
Netherlands richest area of Europe and Philip’s
kingdom.
1559, Philip leaves the Netherlands for Spain, leaving
his sister Margaret of Parma, assisted by a special
council, as regent
Council headed by Antoine Perrenot (known after
1561 as Cardinal Granvelle) with the hopes of:
Checking Protestant gains by internal church reforms
Break down the traditional local autonomy of the 17
Netherlands provinces
Replace with a centralized royal government directed
from Madrid
Goal: politically docile and religiously uniform
country
Netherland’s merchant towns, independent
and Calvinist strongholds
Two members of the council of state led
opposition to Spanish rule: Count of Egmont
and William of Nassau aka William of Orange
William of Orange placed politics of
Netherlands above religion and he was a
confessed Catholic, Lutheran, and Calvinist
He married Anne of Saxony
Orange and Egmont organized Dutch nobility in
opposition to Granvelle which resulted in his
removal from office in 1564
After Granvelle’s removal, aristocratic control
proved inefficient and popular unrest grew
The Compromise:
Philip II insisted on trying to enforce the
decrees of the Council of Trent throughout the
Netherlands
William of Orange’s younger brother, Louis of
Nassau, who was raised Lutheran, led the
opposition with Calvinist nobility support.
A national covenant called the Compromise
was drawn up: a solemn pledge to resist the
decrees of Trent the and Inquisition
After protesters are insulted by Regent
Margaret’s government in 1566, Calvinists riot
across the country.
Louis will call for aid from French Huguenots and
German Lutherans.
A full scale rebellion against the Spanish regency
appeared imminent.
The rebellion ultimately fails because the
higher nobility of the Netherlands would not
support it.
Philip, determined to make an example of the
Protestant rebels, sends the duke of Alba to
suppress the revolt.
The duke of Alba’s army of 10,000 journeyed
northward from Milan to 1567 in a show of
combined Spanish and papal might.
A special tribunal, known as the Spanish as the
Council of Troubles and among the
Netherlands as the Council of Blood,
reigned over the land.
Before Alba’s reign of terror ended, the counts of
Egmont and Horn and several thousand
suspected heretics were publicly executed.
The Spanish levied new taxes, forcing
Netherlands to pay for the suppression of its
own revolt. An example of tax was the
“tenth penny,” a ten percent sales tax, which
met much resistance from merchants and
artisans.
Persecution and taxation forced thousands to
flee from the Netherlands. Alba, during his
six year rule, became even more hated then
Granvelle or the radical Calvinists.
William of Orange was in exile in Germany during
Alba’s reign. He now emerged as a leader of a broad
movement for the independence of the Netherlands
and Spain.
The northern, Calivinist-inclined provinces of Holland,
Zeeland, and Utrecht, of which Orange was
Stadholder, or governor, became his base.
Early victories attest to the popular character of the
revolt.
In 1573, Alba will cede power to Don Luis de
Requesens, who replaces him as commander of the
Spanish forces in the Netherlands.
Spanish Fury: after Requesens’s death in 1576,
the greatest atrocity of the war occurs when
Spanish mercenaries, leaderless and unpaid, ran
through the streets of Antwerp leaving 7,000
people dead.
What good came out of these atrocities?
The 10 largely Catholic southern provinces
(roughly modern Belgium) and the 7 largely
Protestant northern provinces (roughly
modern Netherlands) unified in opposition to
Spain.
Pacification of Ghent: the unification of the
northern and southern provinces on
November 8, 1576
It declared internal regional sovereignty in
matters of religion which was a key clause since
the signatories were not agreed over religion.
All members eventually join to form the Union
of Brussels in January of 1577.
Don John, the victor over the Turks, had taken
over command of Spanish land forces in
November 1576.
Don John, after facing defeat by a unified
Netherlands, was forced to sign the Perpetual Edict in
February 1577, which provided for the removal of
Spanish troops from the Netherlands within twenty
days.
The withdrawal gave the country to William of Orange.
Two southern provinces, where fear of Calvinist
extremism forced the breaking of the Union of
Brussels, formed the Union of Arras and soon made
peace with Spain. These provinces later served the
cause of the Counter-Reformation. In response,
the northern provinces formed the Union of Utrecht.
Netherlands Independence
As a last opportunity to regain the Netherlands,
Philip II declared William of Orange and
outlaw and placed a bounty of 25,000 crowns
on his head.
William gave a famous defiant speech to the
Estates General of Holland in December
1580, known as the Apology, where he
denounced Philip II and said Netherlands
should not obey.
On July 22, 1581, members of Union of
Utrecht (northern provinces) met in Hague and
declared Philip no longer their ruler. They
would turn to the French duke of Alencon,
the youngest son of Catherine de Medicis.
All northern provinces except Holland and Zeeland
(due to distrust) would accept Alencon as
their sovereign with the understanding it was
more a title than a tyrant role. However,
Alencon will try to take actual control and
will be deposed of in 1583.
Spanish efforts to reconquer Netherlands
continued.
William of Orange assassinated in July 1584 and
was succeeded by his 17 year old son, Maurice
who would continue the Dutch resistance
with the help of England and France.
Thankfully for the Netherlands, Philip II begins
to meddle in French and English affairs. For
example, he signs a secret treaty with Guises
known as the Treaty of Joinville in 1584 and
he sent armies under Alexander Farnese into
France in 1590.
The English openly aided the Dutch and so, the
English and Philip’s relations will build to a
climax in 1588 when Philip’s great Armada is
defeated in the English Channel.
1596: France and England will formerly recognize
the Netherlands independence.
Peace was not concluded with Spain until
1609, when the Twelve Years’ Truce gave the
northern provinces virtual independence.
Full recognition will come with the Peace of
Westphalia in 1648.
A Quick Review and Updates with our Tudor
Soap Opera 
The Tudor (and Stuart)
Monarchs
Henry VIII
After
his elder brother Arthur died,
Henry became heir to the throne.
 Spain and England wanted to keep
their alliance, even w/ Arthur’s death
 So Henry married Catherine of
Aragon, Arthur’s widow - no papal
dispensation was given, and the
marriage was even done by proxy;
Henry was only permitted to consent at
canonical age (which he never did)
Later he tried to annul this marriage
so he could marry Anne Boleyn.
 Henry claimed that God punished him
by denying him a legitimate male heir –
in Leviticus, God does threaten
childlessness if a man marries his
brother’s widow…so Henry came to see
Edward VI
He
was the son of Henry VIII and
Jane Seymour - a Protestant who
became king at the age of 9.
The Church of England expanded
while he was king.
But he was sickly and died at the age
of 16.
During his kingship, England was
largely under the rule of Edward’s
council, which included Thomas
Seymour (the Duke of Somerset)…
 Elizabeth
fell in love with Thomas
Seymour, and he wanted to marry
either Elizabeth or Mary (but they could
only marry w/ the permission of the
entire council), so Seymour instead
married Catherine Parr (Henry’s
widow) – as Elizabeth lived w/ Parr,
this made Seymour her stepfather and
guardian
 When Parr died in childbirth, she had
left all to Seymour in an oral will
In
need of a lady of the household,
he brought in Lady Jane Grey (Henry
VIII’s grand-niece), saying he would
marry her off to Edward VI
 Seymour wanted Lady Jane Grey as
the next queen, as opposed to
Edward’s sister Mary, who was
Catholic. (Seymour’s son had married
Jane Grey.)
 in 1549, Edward passed the Act of
Uniformity, introducing the
Protestant Prayer Book – Mary looked
to Catholic Spain and her cousin
Charles V for assistance – basically,
she disobeyed her brother and
father…
So all the fundamental 16th century
values came into conflict – religion,
patriotism, the law, dynastic
succession…
Jane Grey
Edward opted for religion and plotted to get rid of
Mary (and Elizabeth, as he thought she would not go
along w/ him)
 Edward thought succession would go to the male
descendants of Mary Stuart
 There were no male heirs at that time, but it was
assumed someone would have a son eventually…but
then Edward’s health went into rapid decline, and
time was running out
 On his deathbed, Edward changed his will to indicate
that Lady Jane Grey (and not her male heirs) should
succeed him
 When Edward died, Jane became the queen, but
Mary also proclaimed herself the queen – when
Jane’s army faltered, the council abandoned her
 When Mary recaptured the throne she had Seymour
and Jane executed (Jane was queen for 9 days)...

Mary I (Bloody Mary)
Mary
was the daughter of
Henry VIII and Catharine of
Aragon.
During her childhood, Mary
was persecuted by Henry
when he wanted to annul his
marriage to her mother.
As Queen she attempted to
restore Catholicism, and she
married the young Philip from
Spain.
She also had more than 300
Protestants killed.
None of these actions was
popular with the now firmly
entrenched Protestant
England
Mary pressured Elizabeth to convert to Catholicism –
she learned to go thru the motions
 Mary turned against Elizabeth anyway – saw her as a
threat
 She wanted a husband to play the necessary
chivalric role; at this time Charles V offered his
handsome 26 yr old son Philip (she was 37 and less
attractive)
 Spain was looking for an alliance w/ Eng. against
France and hoped a re-Catholicized Eng. would help
Spain against the revolt in the Netherlands
 Many in Eng. never accepted her marriage to Philip
 A rebellion erupted against Mary (=Wyatt’s
rebellion) – Elizabeth was connected to it, and ended
up in the Tower…
 But she admitted nothing and was spared, finding
herself instead under house arrest

But Mary and Philip had trouble conceiving a
child…Philip decided to leave and pursue
other kingdoms instead…and he came to
favour Elizabeth over Mary as he thought it
was better for the Habsburgs (w/o Elizabeth,
the other successor was Mary, Queen of
Scots, who would have allied with France)
 Philip had managed to take England into a
war w/ France, and the England lost the
fortress of Calais…
 Mary’s regime had failed, and was unpopular
anyway with the 100s of burnings…
 When Mary died peacefully, Elizabeth
acceded to the throne peacefully – she was
proclaimed in only 6 hrs. as having the
“lawful right and title to the crown”

Elizabeth I
The red-haired daughter of
Henry VIII and Anne
Boleyn, she became
England’s greatest leader.
She kept control of England
by refusing to marry anyone
and playing one noble
against another – many
hoping to marry the Queen.
She kept religious wars
down, advanced exploration,
became a patron of the arts,
and brought England to the
position of world power with
the defeat of the Spanish
Armada
Elizabeth, assisted by an adivsor: Sir William Cecil, built a
true kingdom between 1559-1603.
A 45 year period during which England dominated the
seas to become a European power; colonization
began with Sir Walter Raleigh and others establishing
settlements in North America; culture flourished
with individuals such as William Shakespeare,
Christopher Marlowe, and Sir Edmund Spenser
producing literary masterpieces; and industry
commerce boomed.
This is the Elizabethan Age!
Elizabeth And Religion
1559: Act of Supremacy passed by Parliament, repealed all antiProtestant legislation of Mary Tudor and asserts
Elizabeth’s right as “supreme governor” over both
spiritual and temporal affairs.
1559: Act of Uniformity mandated for every English parish
a revised version of the second Book of Common
Prayer
1563: Thirty-Nine Articles, a revision of Thomas
Cramner’s original forty-two, made a moderate
Protestantism the official religion within the Church of
England
Elizabeth hoped to avoid both Catholic and
Protestant extremism. When she ascended the
throne, Catholics were majority in England.
The extremists among them, encouraged by
the Jesuits, plotted against her.
The Spanish would later help these radicals
because of her Protestant sympathies and
her refusal to wed Philip II.
However, Elizabeth chose to remain unmarried
throughout her reign, using the possibility of
royal marriage to her diplomatic advantage.
Catholic extremists hoped to replace Elizabeth who had
been declared illegitimate during the reign of her
father, with Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots. Mary’s
grandmother was Margaret, Henry VIII’s sister.
She would act swiftly on assassination plots.
However, Elizabeth would execute far fewer Catholics in
her 45 year reign than Mary Tudor had executed
Protestants in her 5 year reign.
Elizabeth showed no mercy to any who threatened
the unity of her rule.
She dealt cautiously with the Puritans.
Puritans
A religious movement that began in England in the
1500s and lasted into the first half of the 1600s
Named Puritans because they wanted to purify the
Anglican church aka the Church of England.
They believed too much power rested in the church
hierarchy (its priests, bishops, and cardinals), that
the people (called laity) should have more
involvement in church matters, and the ceremonies
ought to be simplified to stress Bible reading and
individual prayer.
Does this sound familiar? When the Puritans faced
persecution at home, they became religious pilgrims,
traveling to the New World. The settled at a place
called Plymouth Rock.
16th century Puritans were not true separatists.
Led by men such as Thomas Cartwright, they worked
through Parliament to create an alternative national
church of semiautonomous congregations governed
by representative presbyteries (Presbyterians),
following the model of Calvin and Geneva.
The more extreme Puritans wanted every congregation
to be autonomous. They came to be known as
Congregationalists and Elizabeth refused to tolerate this
group.
The Conventicle Act of 1593 gave such separatists the
option to either conform to the practices of the
Church of England or face exile or death.
What Led to the Need to Defeat the Spanish Armada?
1567: Spanish duke of Alba marches army into the
Netherlands which appeared as a staging for the
Spanish to invade England
Pope Pius V, favored military conquest of Protestant
England, “excommunicated” Elizabeth for heresy in 1570
(encouraged internal resistance and international
interest in the queen)
England signs a defense pact with France
Also in 1570s, Elizabeth’s famous seamen John Hawkins
and Sir Francis Drake prey regularly on Spanish
shipping to America
After St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre,
Elizabeth is the only protector of Protestants
in France and in the Netherlands.
1585: signs the Treaty of Nonsuch, provided English
soldiers and calvary to the Netherlands.
So, funds that had been given covertly to
Henry of Navarre’s army in France now
flowed openly.
And finally, Elizabeth’s execution of Mary,
Queen of Scots.
Mary (Stuart), Queen of Scots
Mary
was the daughter of James
V of Scotland and destined to be
the Queen of France by marriage.
When Francois II died, she came
back to be Queen of Scotland.
English Catholics believed that
she was the only legitimate heir
after Mary I’s death – they rallied
around her.
Given the threat, Mary was
brought to England as a “guest”
(prisoner)
This again raised the succession
issue…the Protestant Elizabeth had
a Catholic successor…and Mary
became “more” Catholic…
w/ Mary as a symbol, rebellion
began in the countryside
One of the most well-known events of
Elizabeth’s reign was England’s defeat of the
Spanish Armada July-August 1588.
An interesting twist: Elizabeth was the daughter
of Henry VIII and Anne Boelyn. She
succeeds her half sister Mary Tudor as
queen. Mary was married to Spain’s Philip II.
And so, in the summer of 1588, the
“invincible” Spanish fleet, which was headed
for invasion of England and was dispatched
by Mary’s former husband Philip! Geez,
Thanks Bro!
While England tried to build its own fleet and
assemble the necessary forces, Sir Francis Drake
launched surprise attacks against the Spanish (such as
at Cadiz Harbor) to stall for time.
In July 1588, the Spanish Armada, led by Drake of
Medina Sidonia moved into action. The English were
facing the most powerful fleet in the world!
The invasion force was first sighted off the Cornish
coast in the southwest corner of England. Under
the command of Lord Howard, with Drake, Hawkins,
and Frobisher each commanding their own
squadrons, they were successful in disabling a number
of galleons but the Spanish were stronger than
expected.
While Medina Sidonia regrouped his fleet off
the French port of Calais and pondered his
next move, 55 year-old Elizabeth I put on armor
and rallied her army at Tilbury with a famous
speech: “I know I have the body of a weak
and feeble woman, but I have the heart and
stomach of a king.”
With their queen’s battle cry still ringing in
their ears, the English dispatched fireships
for a midnight attack on the crowded fleet
that was still anchored at Calais. The
surprise attack worked!
Even though the English were severely
outnumbered: only 34 ships to Spain’s 132, they
were aided by weather (“English Wind”) and
defeated the Spanish Armada on August 1.
This victory at sea opened the world to English
trade and colonization.
JAMES I
James I of England
was James VI of
Scotland. His mother
was Mary Queen of
Scots, and at Elizabeth
I’s death, James was
named her heir.
 A Catholic, he was
known for the
authorization of the
King James Version of
the Bible, as well as for
being the “Wisest Fool
in Christendom”.

What economic, social, and political
crises did Europe experience in the first
half of the seventeenth century?
Inflation-fueled prosperity of the 16th century
started to slow by the beginning of the 17th
century.
In 1630s-1640s, as imports of silver from the
Americas declined, economic recession
intensified especially in the Mediterranean
area. Italy and Spain’s economy were failing
by the 1640s.
Population trends of the 16th and 17th centuries
also reveal Europe’s worsening conditions:
16th century saw an increase in populationpossibly due to warmer climate and
increased food supplies. Estimated that the
population in Europe increased from 60
million in 1500 to 85 million by 1600.
The first major recovery of Europe’s population
since the Black Death in the mid-14th
century.
Records also show a population leveling off by
1620 and even an decline by 1650, especially
in central and southern France.
Only the Dutch, English, and French grew in
number in the first half of the seventeenth
century.
War, famine, and plague continued to affect
population levels.
After the middle of the sixteenth century,
another “little ice age,” where average
temperatures fell, affected harvests, and
caused famines.
These problems created social tensions that
came to a boil in the witchcraft craze.
A Witchcraft Trial in France
The Witchcraft Craze
In the 16th and 17th centuries, Witchcraft trials were
held in England, Scotland, Switzerland, Germany,
and some parts of France and the Low Countries,
and even New England in America.
Witchcraft was not a new phenomenon as its practice
had been part of traditional village culture for
centuries, however, now, it was viewed as both
sinister and dangerous when the Medieval church
began to connect witches to the activities of the
devil which transformed witchcraft into a heresy
that had to be wiped out.
After the establishment of the Inquisition in the
thirteenth century, some people were accused of a
variety of witchcraft practice, and following the
biblical injunction, “Thou shalt not suffer a witch to
live,” were turned over to secular authorities for
burning at the stake or, in England, hanging.
Witchcraft in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
differed from previous developments because of
the increased numbers of trials and executions of
presumed witches.
Nearly 100,000 people
were prosecuted throughout
Europe on charges of witchcraft!
Fear of witches and of being accused of being a witch
escalated. Larger cities were affected first but the
witch craze would spread to rural villages as well.
Accused often confessed after intense torture.
Confessions included:
*Swearing allegiance to the devil
*Attending sabbats or nocturnal gatherings where
they feasted, danced, and even participated in
sexual orgies with the devil
*Using evil incantations and special ointments to
wreak havoc on neighbors by killing their livestock,
hurting their children or conjuring storms to destroy
crops.
Why the Witchcraft Frenzy?
Many factors have been suggested to
contribute to this craze in the 16th and 17th
centuries:
1. Religious uncertainties-many witchcraft trials
occurred in areas where Protestantism had
been recently victorious or in regions, such
as in southwestern Germany, where
Protestant-Catholic controversies raged.
As religious passions became inflamed,
accusations of being in league with the devil
became common on both sides.
2. Social Conditions: Recently historians have
also emphasized the importance of social
conditions, especially the problems of a
society in turmoil, in explaining witchcraft
hysteria.
Old communal values that stressed working
together
Characteristics of the Thirty Years War
 The Holy Roman Empire was the battleground.
 At the beginning  it was the Catholics vs. the
Protestants.
 At the end  it was Habsburg power that was
threatened.
 Resolved by the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648.
1618-1648
The Bohemian Phase: 1618-1622
 Ferdinand II inherited Bohemia.

The Bohemians hated him.
Ferdinand refused to tolerate Protestants.
Defenestration of Prague May, 1618

Bohemia named a new king, Frederick V.


The Bohemian Phase: 1618-1622
 Ferdinand II becomes Holy Roman Emperor.


Frederick II borrowed an army from Bavaria.
Frederick lost his lands in the fighting.
 The rebellion in Bohemia inspired others.
The Danish Phase: 1625-1629
 Ferdinand II tried to end all resistance.



Tried to crush Protestant northern Holy
Roman Empire.
Ferdinand II used Albrecht von Wallenstein for
the army.
Wallenstein defeated Protestants in north.
 Edict of Restitution (1629):


Restored to Catholics all lands lost since 1552.
Deprived all Protestants, except Lutherans,
of their religious and political rights.
 German princes feared Ferdinand  he fired
Wallenstein in effort to calm them.
Albrecht
von
Wallenstein
The Swedish Phase: 1630-1635
 France & Sweden now get involved.



Both want to stop Habsburg power.
Sweden led the charge.
France provided support.
 Gustavus Adolphus invaded the Holy Roman
Empire.


Ferdinand II brought back Wallenstein.
Swedish advance was stopped.
 German princes still feared Ferdinand II.
 Wallenstein assassinated to appease them.
Gustavus
Adolphus
The French Phase: 1635-1648
 France & Sweden switched roles.
 All countries in Europe now participated.
 This phase was most destructive!





German towns decimated.
Agriculture collapsed  famine resulted.
8 million dead  1/3 of the population [from 21
million in 1618 to 13.5 million in 1648]
Caused massive inflation.
Trade was crippled throughout Europe.
Loss of German Lives in 30 Years’ War
The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
 Political Provisions:
*Each German prince became free from any kind of control
by the Holy Roman Emperor.
*The United Provinces [Dutch Netherlands.] became
officially independent  southern part remained a Spain
possession.
*France received most of the German-speaking province of
Alsace and three cities: Metz, Toul, and Verdun, giving
the French control of the Franco-German border
area.
*Austrian Habsburgs did not lose any land, however did see
their authority as rulers of Germany diminish.
Habsburg emperor had been reduced to a figurehead
in the Holy Roman Empire.
* Sweden  got lands in Northern Germany
on the Baltic & Black Sea coasts.
*Switzerland became totally independent of
the Holy Roman Emperor  Swiss
Confederation.
*Sweden won a voice in the Diet of the Holy
Roman Empire
*Brandenburg-Prussia got important territories
on North Sea & in central Germany and
became the most powerful German state
The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
Religious Provisions:
*Religion and politics were now separate.
*All German states, including the Calvinist
ones, were free to determine their own
religion.
*The pope was completely ignored in all
decisions at Westphalia, and political motives
became the guiding forces in public affairs as
religion moved closer to becoming primarily a
matter of personal conviction and individual
choice.
Treaty of Westphalia (1648)
1688-1700
Nobody Was Happy!
 Many Protestants felt betrayed.
 The pope denounced it.
 Only merit  it ended the fighting in a war
that became intolerable!
 For the next few centuries, this war was
blamed for everything that went wrong in
Central Europe.
Military Revolution?
Some historians believe the changes in science
and warfare between 1560 and 1660 warrant
the title of military revolution others suggest
military developments were more gradual.
Medieval warfare: mounted knights and
supplementary archers
Renaissance: employment of infantry armed
with pikes and halberds and arranged in
mass rectangles known as squadrons or
battalions.
Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden,
developed the first standing army of
conscripts, notable for the flexibility of its
tactics.
Infantry brigades of Gustavus’s army
composed of equal numbers of musketeers
and pikemen, standing six men deep.
Implemented the salvo, in which all rows of
the infantry fired at once instead of row by
row.
The salvos of fire, followed by pike charge.
Gustavus also used calvary charging with
swords.
Standing armies necessitated better-disciplined and
better trained soldiers leading to education of
officers in military schools.
Armies also introduced the use of linear rather than
square formations to provide greater flexibility and
mobility in tactics.
Eventually, the musket with attached bayonet
increasingly replaced the pike in the ranks of
infantry.
Naval arms: 17th century led to bigger warships or
capital ships known as “ships of the line.” By the
end of the 17th centuries, these ships had two to
three decks and were capable of carrying between
fifty and one hundred heavy cannon.
Economics of Warfare
Larger armies and navies could be maintained
only through levying heavier taxes.
The creation of large bureaucracies to
supervise the military resources of the state
led to growth in the power of state
governments.
Notes/Study Guide…
Plus, attached to the back:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Martin Luther, Calvin, Loyola jigsaw
questions
Edict of Nantes/Witch trial questions
Church Drawings
Storyboard for Philip II and Netherlands
Video notes