Transcript Chapter 22

By Audrey Pham
CHAPTER 22:
THE PROGRESS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
Pictured above: Coalbrookdale By Night, painted by Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg in 1801, depicts one of the
Coalbrookdale ironworks. The development of coke smelting in this area revolutionized the production of iron and helped
fuel the Industrial Revolution (“Image of Coalbrookdale”).
THE TECHNOLOGY TO SUPPORT MACHINES
Industrialization required the efficient use of
raw materials, beginning with cheap materials
such as iron and coal.
 England was at an advantage because it was
well supplied with coal deposits that lay close
to its iron core.
 As coal mining required digging into deeper
veins, the need for powerful pumps to remove
water stimulated experiments to harness steam
as a power source grew (Chambers 652).
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Raw coke is grey, hard, and porous
(“Coke (fuel)”).
COAL AND IRON
Coal was not useful in smelting iron
because its impurities combined with
the iron, making an inferior product.
Therefore, masters traditionally used
charcoal, but it was expensive
(Chambers 652).
In 1709, Abraham Darby invented a way
of smelting iron with coke instead of
charcoal (Mack).
As another replacement for charcoal,
18th century engineers experimented
with coke (a purified form of coal) to
produce pig iron, which could be cast but
not worked or machined (Chambers
652).
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A diagram of Thomas Savery’s original
atmospheric engine plans (Galloway 15).
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THE ATMOSPHERIC ENGINE
In the 17th century, scientists proved that atmosphere has
weight, leading to experiments that used atmospheric
pressure to push a piston through a cylinder, in both
England and on the Continent. Experiments developed the
“atmospheric engine,” which required a partial vacuum,
and before long, the condensation of steam was being used
to create the partial vacuum required in the machine
(Chambers 653).
The first commercially successful atmospheric engine was
invented by Captain Thomas Savery. He presented his
model to King William, and in June of 1699 obtained a
patent that granted him exclusive privilege of manufacture.
His invention was described in a book published in 1702,
called The Miner’s Friend (Galloway 15).
Savery’s engine was, however, inefficient as a pump,
drawing the attention of the blacksmith Thomas Newcomen
for improvements. Along with his friend John Cawley, a
glazier, Newcomen developed an atmospheric engine that
had separate engine and pumps, and proved a third more
efficient than Savery’s engine. They were about to apply for
a patent when Savery claimed the invention as his, on the
ground that the method of creating a vacuum through
steam was his discovery; they were then forced to allow
Savery’s name to be associated with the grant they
obtained in 1705 (Galloway 19-20).
Newcomen’s engines were soon put to use removing water
from mines not only in Great Britain, but in Austria,
Denmark, France, and Hungary (Chambers 653).
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James Watt, a young mechanic and instrument
maker at the University of Glasgow, took the
fundamental step in the development of steam.
In 1782, Watt’s first practical model of the steam
engine was finally patented. With the addition of a
system of gears for converting the piston’s
reciprocating motion to rotary motion, it was three
times more efficient than that of Newcomen.
Watt was able to make his machines a commercial
success through his partnership with Matthew
Boulton, who recognized the rising demand for
cheap power (Chambers 653). Watt was also able to
channel the vast resources of Boulton’s Soho
Foundry.
The Boulton & Watt firm became so successful that
it supplied engines and expertize as far as Greece
and Russia (“Boulton”).
The model Newcomen engine that
Watt experimented upon in
developing his improved steam
engine (Burns).
JAMES WATT AND THE STEAM ENGINE
ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF REVOLUTION AND WAR
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Great Britain’s lead in production, invested capital, and
the use of machinery increased steadily from 1789 to
1815. Great Britain’s lead in the Industrial Revolution
was due in part to its larger population, and also to its
abundance of resources (Beck 634).
On the Continent, the exploitation of resources became
more systematic, population increased, transportation
improved, the means of mobilizing capital for investment
expanded, and political leaders became more interested
in economic growth (Chambers 653-654).
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Pictured above: Emperor Napoleon
Bonaparte (“Napoleon”).
The Napoleonic Code and French commercial
law favored free contracts and open
enterprise, and introduced the advantages of
uniform commercial regulations.
When peace finally came after years of war,
governments were burdened with debt and
soldiers had to find ways to support
themselves in a changed economy.
The Continental System fell with Napoleon,
bringing down many enterprises with it.
Renewed British competition discouraged
capital investment from other countries.
A transition to peacetime economy proved
difficult to achieve when the anticipated
demand for goods failed to materialize
(Chambers 654).
EFFECTS OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION AND THE NAPOLEONIC ERA
PATTERNS OF INDUSTRIALIZATION
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By the mid-1820s, Great Britain was reviving from its postwar slump; by
1830, its economy was being transformed.
Growth in one industry stimulated growth in another. Factories in one region
encouraged the growth of others in the same region, and this concentration
of production increased the demand for roads, canals, and railways. This
required more capital, and the cycle repeated itself.
Great Britain’s industrial growth in the first half of the 19th century was the
greatest humankind had ever experienced in terms of continuity, range of
industries affected, national scope, and rate of increase.
Everywhere, but more often on the Continent than Britain, small-scale
manufacturing existed alongside the new factories. However, the handpowered looms, water-driven mills, and charcoal-fired smelters were
gradually displaced, as were hundreds of thousands of skilled artisans and
rural families that worked in their homes. This transformation and resulting
displacement accounted for much of the human suffering caused by
industrialization (Chambers 654-655).
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The consumption of cotton increased
dramatically in the 19th century, as pictured
above. This stimulated the growth of the cotton
industry , and as a result, other industries
(Beck 636).
COTTON
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Due to consumer demand,
cotton became the single most
important industrial product in
Great Britain in terms of output,
capital investment, and
workforce.
Cotton production was organized
mainly in factories that used
power-driven machinery for
spinning yarn and weaving cloth,
such as Edmund Cartwright’s
power loom (Mack).
Following the increased
production of cotton, prices
dropped to about one-twentieth
of what it was in the 1760s
(Chambers 654).
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The above image shows the growth of
railway lines in England between 1845 and
1914 (Schwartz).
RAILROADS AND THE TELEGRAPH
The first successful steam railway line was built
in England in 1825; by 1851, there were 7,000
miles of rail lines in Great Britain.
Railroads made up a new industry that further
stimulated industrialization: they bought coal
and iron for rails, carried food, manufactured
products, raw materials, and building materials
to different areas. They also provided
transportation for those searching for work
(Chambers 655).
Business tended to spring up beside the
railways because of the constant traffic. Prices
for the carriage of goods decreased, and
delivery became more frequent and less
dependent on the weather (Dowd).
The telegraph was developed by a generation of
scientists in different countries. It was
eventually adopted as an adjunct of railroading
and expanded to other uses as well (Chambers
655).
TRANSPORTATION ON THE CONTINENT, 1850
“Major developments in transportation took place in Germany and along
the English Channel, where there better natural resources or pools of labor”
(Burnett).
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By the 1850s, the zone of industrialization included only
Great Britain, northeastern France, Belgium, the
Netherlands, western Germany, and northern Italy.
Belgium built on its tradition of technological skill,
geographic advantages, and access to coal to become
the Continent’s first industrialized nation. It extracted
more coal than Germany or France and was the first
nation to complete a railway network.
Eastern Europe remained a world of mostly agricultural
estates.
Increased production led to closer international ties as
capital, techniques, workers, and managers moved from
Britain to Belgium and France, and spread into the rest of
Europe (Chambers 655).
NATIONAL DIFFERENCES
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The state was centrally involved in economic growth by midcentury, even in Britain. In the case of the railway, things like
routes, rates, and the gauge of the track became issues to
be settled by parliaments or special committees (Chambers
656).
Tariffs became a dominant issue in every country. In 1846,
the Anti-Corn-Law-League, formed in Manchester, won a
significant victory in abolishing the Corn Law, which imposed
a tariff on imported corn when prices fell too low, thereby
protecting the English landholders (Cody).
Banking and currency were also important to economic
development. Mid-century, Parliament granted the Bank of
England a monopoly and required companies to register with
the governments and publish their annual budget as a guide
to investors. Similar measures were taken throughout
Europe (Chambers 656).
STATE POLITICS
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The Penny Black stamp, pictured
above, was the first stamp to be put
into use (“Penny”).
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THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT
The growth of cities and better technology
led to additional social demands on
government. By the 1840s, most cities had
some sidewalks, gas lighting in certain
areas, and a public omnibus. These services
had to subsidized, regulated, and given legal
protection by the government (Chabers 656).
The postal service is an example of
government involvement. In the industrial
age, the current postal system could not
keep up. Reforms suggested by a man
named Rowland Hill were adapted in Great
Britain (“The Invention”). Among his reforms
were standard envelopes and payment in
advance in the form of a small adhesive
stamp. Within twenty years, the volume of
mail in Britain had increased sixfold. By the
1850s, every major government had
adopted Hill’s new system.
The government was now expected to
provide economic growth (Chambers 656).
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Above: The Crystal Palace (“The Crystal Palace”).
Below: The Japanes delegation visiting the
Crystal Palace (“Crystal Palace”).
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THE CRYSTAL PALACE
The Crystal Palace was an architectural
milestone: a huge glass and iron structure built in
London’s Hyde Park for the purpose of housing
the first international industrial exhibition in
1851.
By 1850, Great Britain was the wealthiest nation
in history. Prince Albert, head of the Society of
Arts, suggested an exhibition to show off Britain’s
industrial prowess to the rest of the world.
Countries included France, the United States,
Russia, Turkey, Egypt, Germany, the Italian states,
and Austria.
Exhibits fell into four major categories: raw
materials, machinery, manufacturers, and fine
arts.
Many governments feared Britain risked the start
of a revolution by drawing such crowds to London,
but the 2 million visitors a year proved to be wellbehaved (“The Crystal Palace”).
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