Transcript Central Nervous System

Chapter 8
The Nervous System
Presented by Dawn Duran, PT, MHS, CSCS
Adjunct Professor, Kaplan University
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Slide 0
The Nervous System
 Both the nervous and endocrine
systems are the two ways that the
body communicates with itself.
 The nervous system is faster than the
endocrine system.
 Nervous tissue is responsible for
rapid communication between body
structures and control of body
functions.
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Slide 1
The Nervous System
• The nervous system performs various
functions, including:




Communication between body parts
Integration of body parts
Control of body functions
Recognition of sensory stimuli
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Slide 2
Question
What are the two
principal divisions of
the nervous system?
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Organs and Divisions of the Nervous System
• Central nervous system (CNS):
• Consists of the brain and spinal cord (SC)
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS):
• Consists of all of the nerves in the body
 Autonomic nervous system (ANS) is a
subdivision of the PNS.
 It regulates the body’s autonomic, or
involuntary, functions.
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Divisions of the Nervous System
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Physiology of the Nervous
System
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Cells of the Nervous System
The two types of cells found in the nervous system are
neurons (nerve cells) and glia (specialized connective
tissue cells).
 Neurons conduct impulses
 Glia (support) cells
 In other words, neurons are the conducting cells
and glial cells are the supportive and connective
tissue cells.
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Cells of the Nervous System
• Neurons
 Consist of three main parts
• Dendrites (one or more branches; these carry
information/messages towards the cell body)
• Cell body (main part of the neuron)
• Axon (one elongated projection that carries
information/messages away from the cell body)
 In other words, axons carry nerve impulses (known
as action potentials away from the cell body of the
neuron
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Cells of the Nervous System
 Classified according to function
• Sensory neurons transmit information towards
the CNS
 These are afferent neurons
• Motor neurons carry impulses away from the
CNS to either muscle or glandular tissue
 These are efferent neurons (E=exit)
• Interneurons connect the impulses from sensory to
motor neurons
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Cells of the Nervous System
 Axons are surrounded by myelin, which is a white fatty
substance
 Myelin is formed by Schwann cells and is found on
the axons in the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
 The outer cell membrane of a Schwann cell is called
the neurilemma. This plays a critical role in
regeneration of cut and injured axons. Axons in the
brain and SC do not have neurilemma, so the
potential for regeneration in the CNS is less than in
the PNS.
 Nodes of Ranvier are indentations between adjacent
Schwann cells
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What is the purpose of a myelin sheath?
 One of the purposes of myelin is to increase the speed
of the action potential (ie nerve impulse).
 It provides insulation which allows the nerve impulses to
travel more quickly along the length of the nerve. The
impulse hops from one node of Ranvier to the next and
is able to skip across the insulated fiber in between,
therefore significantly decreasing the length of time it
takes for an impulse to perpetuate and travel to where it
needs to go. This is called saltatory conduction.
 In unmyelinated nerve fibers, a nerve impulse is a selfpropagating wave of electrical disturbance.
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Multiple Sclerosis
• The most common primary disease of
the CNS (Central Nervous System) that
affects the myelin is multiple sclerosis
(MS).
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Be able to label a diagram
such as that found in
Figure 8-2 on page 188 of
your textbook
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Cells of the Nervous System
• Glial cells are found in nervous tissue. “Glia
means glue, and these cells help with support and
“holding things together.”
• Glia (aka neuroglia) do not specialize in conducting
impulses as neurons do.
 They are support cells, bringing the cells of
nervous tissue together structurally and
functionally. Glia holding the functioning neurons
together, protect them and regulate neuron
function.
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Cells of the Nervous System
There are three main types of glial cells of the CNS

Astrocytes


Microglia


These are star-shaped cells that help form the bloodbrain barrier (BBB).
 The BBB separates the blood from nervous
tissue to protect the brain from harmful
chemicals that may be in the blood.
These are small and usually stationary. They can assist
with phagocytosis.
Oligodendrocytes

These function to produce myelin in the CNS. This helps
hold nerve fibers in the CNS together. They are analogous to
the Schwann cells of the PNS in this regard.
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Cells of the Nervous System
Types of Glial cells:
Astrocytes
Microglia
Oligodendrocytes
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Nerves
 Nerve consists of a bundle of axons in the
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
 Tract consists of a bundles of axons in the
Central Nervous System (CNS)
 White matter of the brain: Formed by
myelinated tracts. Myelin gives this tissue a
white color.
 Gray matter: Tissue composed primarily
of cell bodies and unmyelinated axons and
dendrites. Since white myelin is not present it
appears gray.
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Nerves
 Nerve coverings are composed of fibrous connective
tissue
 Endoneurium: Surrounds individual fibers within a
nerve
 Groups of wrapped axons are called fascicles
 Perineurium: Surrounds a group (or fascicle)
of nerve fibers
 Epineurium: Surrounds the entire nerve
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Nerves
• A group of nerve cell bodies located in
the PNS is called a ganglion. It is
located near the spinal cord.
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19
Question
What is a reflex arc?
What purpose does it
serve?
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Reflex Arcs
• Nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to effectors over neuron
pathways or reflex arcs
• An effector is an organ that puts nerve signals “into effect.”
• A neuron pathway is the route traveled by a nerve impulse.
• The reflex arc is a specialized path of the neuron pathway, allowing
impulse conduction in only one direction.
• Conduction by a reflex arc results in a reflex, either contraction by a
muscle or secretion by a gland
• Somatic reflexes are contractions of skeletal muscle
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Reflex Arcs
• The simplest type of reflex arcs are two-neuron arcs;
they consist of sensory neurons synapsing in the
spinal cord with motor neurons
• Example: Knee Jerk Reflex
• Three-neuron arcs consist of sensory neurons
synapsing in the spinal cord with interneurons
that then synapse with motor neurons
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Reflex Arcs
• The purpose of a reflex arc is to provide even faster
rate of transmission by cutting out the middle man in
order to provide a protective reflex.
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Question
What is a nerve
impulse?
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Nerve Impulses
• Special signals called nerve impulses are used by
the nervous system. They are also referred to as
action potentials.
• Self-propagating waves of electrical disturbances that
travel along the surface of a neuron membrane
• Impulses usually originate in receptors, which are
specialized dendrites of sensory neurons
• A stimulus is normally a pressure, temperature or
chemical change
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Nerve Impulse
• The membrane of each resting neuron has
a slight positive charge on the outside and
a negative charge on the inside
• This is a result of the excess of sodium
ions that exist on the outside of the
membrane
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Nerve Impulses
• Mechanism
 A stimulus triggers the opening of Na+ channels in
the plasma membrane of the neuron
 ie it increases permeability to Na+
 Inward movement of positive sodium ions leaves a
slight excess of negative ions outside at a
stimulated point
 This marks the beginning of a nerve impulse
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Saltatory Conduction
• If the traveling impulse encounters a
section of membrane insulated with myelin
it can jump over the myelin to the next
exposed section of the neuron
• This type of impulse conduction is much
faster than is possible in nonmyelinated
neurons
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Conduction of Nerve Impulses
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The Synapse
 A synapse is a place where impulses are
transmitted from one neuron (the presynaptic
neuron) to another neuron (the postsynaptic
neuron)
 Synapses are composed of three structures, in
addition to a very narrow synaptic cleft
 Synaptic knob
 Synaptic cleft
 Postsynaptic neuron plasma membrane
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The Synapse
 The synaptic knob is a bulge at the end of a
presynaptic neuron’s axon which is composed
of small sacs that contain neurotransmitters
 When a nerve impulse arrives at the synaptic
nob, neurotransmitters are released into the
synaptic cleft, which is the space between the
synaptic knob and the plasma membrane of
the postsynaptic neuron
 The postsynaptic neuron plasma membrane
contains receptors specific to the
neurotransmitter released
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Components of a Synapse
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The Synapse
• A synapse is a microscopic space that separates the
axon ending of one neuron from the dendrites of
another neuron.
• Neurotransmitters are stored in the presynaptic
neuron and cross the synaptic cleft to the
postsynaptic neuron
• Neurotransmitters bind to specific receptor molecules
in the membrane of a postsynaptic neuron
 They then open ion channels and stimulate
impulse conduction by the membrane
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33
Question
What are examples
of
neurotransmitters?
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Neurotransmitters
• Neutrotransmitters are chemicals by which neurons
communicate. There are at least 30 different
neurotransmitters in our bodies.
• Types of neurotransmitters include…
 Acetylcholine (ACh) – works in SC and at
neuromuscular junction
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Neurotransmitters
 Endorphins and enkephalins – morphine-like
substances that inhibit pain impulses (ie are
natural pain killers)
 Athletes and people who exercise heavily
may release endorphins regularly during
activity
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Neurotransmitters
 Catecholamines (norepinephrine, epinephrin,
dopamine, and serotonin) – play a role in sleep,
motor function, mood and pleasure recognition
• A deficiency of dopamine may result in
Parkinson Disease
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Structure of the Nervous System
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Slide 38
Central Nervous System
• Consists of:
• Brain (located in the dorsal and
cranial cavities)
• Spinal Cord
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Slide 39
Divisions of the Brain
• Brainstem
• Cerebrum
• Cerebellum
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Slide 40
Central Nervous System
• Divisions of the brain
 Brainstem – this structure is responsible for basic
vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat and
blood pressure. The brainstem is composed of:
 Pons
 Midbrain
 Medulla oblongata
 Contains the vital centers (cardiac,
respiratory and vasomotor centers)
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Central Nervous System
 Diencephalon – located above the
midbrain and below the cerebrum
 Hypothalamus – this pea-sized
structure makes some
hormones and is responsible for
regulation of body temperature


The posterior pituitary
gland is an extension of
the hypothalamus
Thalamus – helps produce
sensations, associates
sensations with emotions
and plays a part in the
alerting mechanism
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Thalamus
• The thalamus is involved with the
association of senses with emotions.
• For example, a certain aroma may bring back
pleasant childhood memories of grandma
baking cookies.
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Central Nervous System
 Cerebellum
 Second largest part of the human brain
 Lies under the occipital lobe
 Functions in balance and coordination of body
movements
 Helps control muscle contractions to produce
coordinated movements so that we can maintain
balance, move smoothly, and sustain posture
 An individual with a tumor in his cerebellum
may have problems with coordination and
keeping his balance.
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Central Nervous System
 Cerebrum (Figure 8-10)
 Largest part of the human brain
 The part of the brain that has to do with thinking, or
“cognition”
 Divided into lobes called frontal, parietal, temporal and
occipital
 Divided into two halves which are connected by the corpus
callosum. This structure connects and allows
communication between the left and right cerebral
hemispheres.
 Shallow grooves of the cerebrum are called sulci while
the ridges or convolutions are called gyri
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Lobes of the Brain
• Motor movements are associated with
the frontal lobe
• Hearing is associated with the temporal
lobe
• Vision is associated with the occipital
lobe
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Central Nervous System
Outer layer of gray matter is the cerebral
cortex, composed mainly of dendrites and cell
bodies of neurons
 Interior of the cerebrum composed mainly of
white matter (nerve fibers arranged in bundles
called tracts)
 Islands of gray matter found within the
hemisphere of the cerebrum are known as
cerebral nuclei of basal ganglia

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Central Nervous System
• When a blood vessel in the brain is
blocked with a blood clot or the blood
vessel ruptures, the individual may
suffer a stroke. Another name for
stroke is CVA (CerebroVSascular
Accident).
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Central Nervous System
The Cerebrum
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Central Nervous System
• Spinal cord (lies within the spinal column)
 Outer part composed of white matter made up of
many bundles of axons called tracts
 Interior is composed of gray matter made up
mainly of neuron dendrites and cell bodies
 Functions as the center for all spinal cord reflexes
 Sensory tracts conduct impulses to the brain

Motor tracts conduct impulses from the brain
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Central Nervous System
• Nerve tissue needs to be protected, so the brain
and spinal cord are covered by tough, fluidcontaining membrane called the meninges, which
are then covered by bone.
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Meninges & CSF
 Cerebral and spinal meninges—dura mater (tough
outer layer); arachnoid mater (found between dura
and pia mater); and pia mater (innermost layer)
 These layers extend from the SC into the brain
 The fluid spaces found between the menginges are called
epidural, subdural and subarachnoid
 Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) fills the subarachnoid
spaces as well as ventricles of the brain
 Hydrocephalus refers to too much CSF, or “water on
the brain”
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Central Nervous System
 Be able to identify structures of
the CNS as illustrated in
Figure 8-9, p 198
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Peripheral Nervous System
• Cranial nerves
 Structure— 12 pairs are attached to the
undersurface of the brain
 Function—conducts impulses between the brain
and structures in the head and neck and in the
thoracic and abdominal cavities
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Cranial Nerves – Know the names and functions of these nerves!
Table 8-2, p 210
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Cranial Nerves and their Functions
•
•
•
•
I (olfactory) = smell
II (optic) = vision
X (vagus) = slow heart rate down
XII (hypoglossal) = tongue movements
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Spinal nerves
 Structure—contains dendrites of sensory neurons and
axons of motor neurons
 Functions—conducts impulses necessary
for sensations and voluntary movements
 Sensory neurons carry impulses from the periphery of
the body to the brain and spinal cord
 Motor neurons carry impulses from the brain and
spinal cord to the periphery of the body
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Spinal nerves by region
• 8 cervical
• 12 thoracic
• 5 lumbar
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Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
• Motor neurons that conduct impulses from
the central nervous system to cardiac muscle, smooth
muscle, and glandular epithelial tissue
• Regulates the body’s autonomic or involuntary
functions
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Autonomic Nervous System
• Autonomic neurons
 Preganglionic autonomic neurons conduct from
spinal cord or brainstem to autonomic ganglia
 Postganglionic neurons conduct from autonomic
ganglia to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and
glandular epithelial tissue
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Autonomic Nervous System
• Autonomic or visceral effectors
 Tissues to which autonomic neurons conduct
impulses (ie cardiac and smooth muscle and
glandular epithelial tissue)
• Autonomic conduction paths to visceral effects


Consist of two-neuron relays. Impulses travel over preganglionic neurons
from the spinal cord or brainstem to autonomic ganglia. There they are
relayed across synapses to postganglionic neurons, which then conduct
the impulses from the ganglia to visceral effectors.
In contrast, somatic motor neurons conduct all the way from the spinal
cord or brainstem to somatic effectors with no intervening synapses.
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Autonomic Nervous System
• ANS consists of two divisions
 Sympathetic
 Parasympathetic
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Autonomic Nervous System
• Sympathetic nervous system
 Structure
 Sympathetic preganglionic neurons have
dendrites and cell bodies in gray matter
of thoracic and upper lumbar segments
of the spinal cord
 Sympathetic postganglionic neurons have
dendrites and cell bodies in sympathetic ganglia
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Autonomic Nervous System
 Functions
 Serves as the emergency or stress system
 Group of changes induced by sympathetic
control is called the fight-or-flight response
The physiologic changes associated with the fightor-flight include enlarged pupils, increased heart
rate, dilated skeletal blood vessels
 The sympathetic nervous system controls visceral
effectors during strenuous exercise and strong
emotions, such as anger, fear, hate, or anxiety.

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Autonomic Nervous System
• Parasympathetic nervous system:
 Structure
 Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons have
dendrites and cell bodies in the gray matter of
brainstem and sacral segments of the spinal
cord
 This is why it is sometimes called the
craniosacral system
 Parasympathetic preganglionic neurons
terminate in parasympathetic ganglia located in
the head and the thoracic and abdominal
cavities close to visceral effectors
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Autonomic Nervous System
• Parasympathetic nervous system
 Function
 Dominates control of many visceral effectors
under normal, everyday conditions

The parasympathetic system slows heart rate and
increases peristalsis and the secretion of digestive juices.
It dominates in normal, everyday activities.
 The sympathetic system has the opposite effect and
dominates in emergency situations.
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Autonomic Nervous System
• Autonomic nervous system as a whole
 Regulates the body’s autonomic functions
in ways that maintain or quickly restore
homeostasis
 Emotions can affect the ANS.
 Anger and fear can lead to increased sympathetic activity,
while meditation deceases sympathetic activity.
 Many organs are doubly innervated by the ANS; in other words,
they receive fibers from both the parasympathetic and
sympathetic divisions. Parasympathetic and sympathetic
impulses continually bombard the organs and influence their
function in opposite or antagonistic ways but achieve a balance
(ie homeostasis).
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For your quiz…
• Be able to label the autonomic
conduction paths shown in Figure 8-19
on page 213
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How does the muscular system
interact with other body systems?
• In other words, what are the functional
relationships between the body systems?
• A system with which the nervous system
interacts on a regular basis is the
• Muscular System
• How do they interact?
• Can you think of any more?
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How does the Nervous System
contribute to homeostasis?
• Along the same lines as the previous question:
what systems does this system interact with to
accomplish this?
• How does this interaction occur?
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???????????????????????
• Questions???????????
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