Transcript CriticalThinking - University at Albany

Critical Thinking
Sanjay Goel & Sal Belardo
Objective
• The Objective of today’s workshop
– To help enhance your ability to learn.
– Provide you with tools to focus and think
critically
– Increase your effectiveness in learning,
writing and speaking.
Critical Thinking: Socrates
From Socrates we get the
great emphasis on
argument and critical
thinking. Socrates chose to
make argument the main
thinking tool. Within
argument, there was to be
critical thinking:
Why do you say that?
What do you mean by that?
Critical Thinking: Plato
From Plato we get the
notion that there is the
"truth" somewhere but
that we have to search for
it to find it. The way to
search for the truth is to
use critical thinking to
attack what is untrue.
Critical Thinking: Aristotle
From Aristotle we get a
type of logic based on
identity and non-identity,
on inclusion and
exclusion.
Critical Thinking
“Critical Thinking is purposeful goal
directed thinking. It is an art of thinking
about what one is thinking about in order to
make it more accurate, clear and defensible”
--Sal Belardo
Brain & Intelligence - Historical
• Aristotle believed that brain size was related to
intelligence.”
• Later it was believed that cranial volume reflected
intelligence hence (Paul Broca)
– Women were inferior to men
– Non-Europeans were inferior to Europeans
• His work was later superceded by the neuronal
doctrine (Waldayer)
– Neurons are the processing units of the brain.
How do you Think?: Brain
Brain: Complexity
Human
Jack Rabbit
The Brain: A Network of Cells
“The adult human brain weights about 3 pounds and
consists of about 100 billion nerve cells or
neurons. These neurons are responsible for the
transmission of information throughout the brain.
The outer wrinkled mantle of the brain called the
cerebral cortex contains about 30 billion of these
neurons connected to each other by means of a
million billion neuronal connections called
synapses. The neurons communicate with each
other via these connections.”
Neurons
Brain & Intelligence - Neurons
• Current models postulate that intelligence
and complexity are the result of the
properties of neurons and how they are
connected. Not only the number of neurons
but physiological properties of neurons are
also relevant: channels, cable properties,
and the type of synapses.
Brain: A Computer?
“The human brain is an amazing piece of
engineering that allows us to process
billions of bits of information within a
compact, powerful, continuously changing
computer that we carry on our shoulders our
entire lives”
-- Nancy C. Andreasen
My Brain
“My Brian is my second-favorite organ”
-- Woody Allen
Functional Area of Brain
Synapse
Knowledge
“Knowledge is a gigantic and ever-growing
sphere in space and time, made up of millions
of interconnecting, crisscrossing pathways”
-- James Burke
Learning
• Learning is a process by which we acquire new
knowledge
• Learning occurs by creation of neurons and
associations between existing neurons.
• If you stop learning your overall mental capacity
and performance will decline. This is because of
the weakening and eventual loss of brain networks
• Over varying periods of time you’ll notice a
gradual but steady decrease in your mental agility
if you do not nourish and enhance these networks
Memory
• We are our memories
• It is the process by which we retain
knowledge over time
– Episodic Memory
– Semantic Memory
• Memory is established in multiple stages
– Short Term
– Long Term
Attention
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“Attention is the spotlight that our brains use to
identify stimuli within the context of time and
space to select what is relevant and to ignore
what is irrelevant”
Neurons fatigue in 3-5 mins of sustained activity
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Recover but become inefficient in a few cycles
Brain tunes off when only factual information is
provided to it
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Key to stay focused is to stimulate different parts of
the brain
Critical thinking spreads neuronal load across the
brain
Can Learning be Enhanced?
• Key to increasing your mental abilities is to
increase your cognitive skills.
– Cognition refers to your ability to attend,
identify and act.
– It also refers to thoughts, moods, inclination,
decisions, and actions
– It includes alertness, concentration, speed,
learning, memory, problem solving, creativity
and mental endurance.
Cognition: Critical Thinking?
• One demonstrated way to increase cognitive
skills is to use a collection of tools and
techniques that can be classified under the
rubric critical thinking
• These tools were developed by philosophers
and thinkers over the last three thousand
years
• Business leaders do not relate well to these
tools
Critical Thinking
• We propose to introduce a Rosetta Stone for
Critical Thinking which will be more
orthogonal to the managerial mindset
Classical
Critical
Thinking
• Syllogisms
• Truth Table
• Chain Arguments
• Inductive Reasoning
• Deductive Reasoning
Bloom’s
Taxonomy
• Cognitive
• Affective
• Psychomotor
Applied
Critical
Thinking
• Experimentation
• Reasoning
• Communication
Critical Thinking
Definition
Critical thinking is goal directed thinking. It is the art of
thinking about what one is thinking about in order to make it more clear,
more accurate, and ultimately more defensible
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Rosetta Stone of Critical Thinking
Three Domains of Learning
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Cognitive Domain: Deals with the development of ascending levels of
intellectual abilities and skills.
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Affective Domain: Describes levels of the internalization process of the
learner’s interest, attitudes, values, appreciations, and behavior.
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Motor Skills Domain: Deals with physical activity requiring coordination.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Cognitive Domain
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Knowledge: I can define it
Comprehension: I understand it
Application: I have used it
Analysis: I know how each part works
Synthesis: I can adapt it to other uses
Evaluation: I know when to use it
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Cognitive Domain
In the Domain of Finance: Net Present Value
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Knowledge: I have heard the term before. Isn’t that a method for ranking
investment proposals.
Comprehension: The Net Present Value is equal to the present value of future
returns, discounted at the marginal cost of capital, minus the present value of the
cost of the investment.
Application : I used it recently to help make a decision concerning two investment
proposals.
Analysis: The equation consists of several factors: the net cash flows, the marginal
cost of capital, the initial cost of the project, and the project’s expected life.
Synthesis: I believe that this method can also be used as part of a method to
determine the value of a firm’s intangible assets.
Evaluation: I know when to use NPV and when to use the IRR method
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Cognitive Domain
In the Domain of Prototyping
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Knowledge: I have heard the term before. Isn’t that a method for developing an
application in stages where at each stage the user works with the application and
suggests additional functionality.
Comprehension: Prototyping addresses the situation where users aren’t able to
specify what they want a system to do. You give them a simple version with only a
few features and they learn more about what they want by using the system.
Application: Last semester I completed a system for a hospital that followed the
prototyping approach. It took 12 versions, but the hospital administrator was
pleased.
Analysis: The learn by using method is really quite powerful. While it was
originally intended as a learning devise for users, it also works as a learning tool for
the developer. I have found that I learn as much about the functional area as the
user learns about the system.s functionality.
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Cognitive Domain
In the Domain of Prototyping
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Synthesis: I see a good application of prototyping in the design phase. By creating
several system designs, in phases much like in prototyping, we can cut the design
time, have a better chance of getting the correct design in place, and save on
programming changes.
Evaluation: I think we should measure the characteristics of the system to be
developed and based on those characteristics decide which SDM to use.
Prototyping is especially useful when we are under severe time constraints. On the
other hand, prototyping is not appropriate when data resources are not available,
when users cannot commit the required time, or when we don’t have appropriate
software support tools..
Bloom’s Taxonomy
The Affective Domain
• Receiving: I will listen even though I am not sure of the value of
what I am listening to.
• Responding: Something important is happening here, perhaps I
need to become more involved, even committed.
• Valuing: There is a value that underlies the behavior exhibited in
the previous step.
• Organization of a value complex. Organizing and prioritizing
values so that they enable one to act in a consistent way.
• Characterization: To be known by the values that one honestly and
consistently exhibits.
Learning by Experimentation
Scientific Method
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State the Problem
Develop Hypotheses
Develop an Experiment
Gather Data
Test Hypotheses
Draw Conclusions
Report on Results
A Critical Thinking Exercise
...The objective of this Essay is to assert one very simple principle, as entitled to govern absolutely
the dealings of society with the individual in the way of compulsion and control, whether the means
be physical force in the form of legal penalties or the moral coercion of public opinion.
The principle is, that the sole end for which mankind are warranted, individually or collectively, in
interfering with the liberty of action of any of their number is, self-protection. The only purpose for
which power can be rightly exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is
to prevent harm to others. His own good, either physical or moral is not a sufficient warrant. He
cannot rightfully be compelled to do so or forbear because it will be better for him to do so, because
it will make him happier, because, in the opinions of others, to do so would be wise, or even right.
There are good reasons for remonstrating with him, or persuading him, or entreating him, but not
for compelling him, or visiting him with any evil, in case he do otherwise. To justify that, from
which it is desired to deter him must be calculated to produce evil to some one else. The only part of
the conduct of any one for which he is amenable to society, is that which concerns others. In the
part which merely concerns himself, his independence, of right absolute. Over himself,
over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign.
From J.S. Mill’s Essay On Liberty
Applying Critical Thinking
Four Categories of Questions
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Summary/Definition: What are we talking about? What are key terms
and phrases?
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Analysis: How does the “system” work?
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Hypothesis: What will happen if?
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Evaluation: Is this a good idea, system, device. etc.?
Applying Critical Thinking
Category 1: Summary/Definition
At this level, the critical thinker must attempt to determine relevant
knowledge. Here the term knowledge means basic facts. It does not imply
comprehension The critical thinker attempts to determine the glossary of
terms that apply to the problem. Questions that can be employed include:
Who, when, what is? Other questions include: Can you give me an example?
In the event that someone is talking or writing about the computer language
JAVA, an appropriate set of questions might include: What is JAVA, who
uses it, and when? Here the critical thinker attempts to determine the various
entities appropriate to a problem or question, and the key terms that apply
to these entities.
Applying Critical Thinking
Category 2: Analysis
Here the critical thinker attempts to focus on the parts and their functionality as they
relate to the whole. Processes are important here. Continuing with the JAVA example,
the critical thinker would want to know the steps involved in using JAVA to develop a
warehouse object. Examples of analysis questions include: How, what is the reason for,
what other examples are there? What is the relationship between x and y? During
analysis, the critical thinker is looking for evidence or proof of support... cause and
effect.
Category 3: Hypothesis
Here the critical thinker tends to focus on hypothetical consequences. Questions that
are employed include: What would happen if x occurs? If y had happened what would
be different? These questions help us understand possible consequences that might
not be apparent at first. A question such as what do linked list do to your JAVA
program is such an example.
Applying Critical Thinking
Category 4: Evaluation
Here we are looking for a judgement. Questions such as: Is x good or bad, effective or
ineffective are examples of evaluation type questions. Questions such as: What are the
advantages or disadvantages are designed to determine whether the material presented
is of any value and can be employed. A specific question might be: How helpful is
JAVA requires an assessment of the tool. Here we look for evidence to support the
conclusion.
Applying Critical Thinking
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Summary/Definition: What is J.S. Mill basically saying here? What is meant by
“harm to others”? What does remonstrating mean?
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Analysis : Why does Mill say what he says? What evidence does Mill use to support
his ideas? How do Mill’s views relate to those of his contemporaries?
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Hypothesis: How might Mill’s ideas be different if he were writing today? What if
we applied this to a discussion of smoking?
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Evaluation: Do I/you agree with J.S. Mill? Is Mill persuasive in his discussion of
On Liberty? Why? What would be the advantages of adopting Mill’s views?
Analyzing John S Mill’s Essay
On Liberty
You might, in thinking about what Mill wrote, think about his contemporaries
or the people and events that influenced him….Individuals such as Adam
Smith, Jeremy Bentham David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, De Tocqueville,
Napoleon, and events such as the Napoleonic Wars, The Corn Laws, the
expulsion of crofters in Scotland, etc.
Communication Through Critical Thinking
Reasoning
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Characteristics
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The Eight Elements of Reasoning
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Universal Intellectual Standards
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Critical Intellectual Traits
Communication Through Critical Thinking
Characteristics of Critical Thinkers
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Conceptualization: property and processes
Reason not Prejudice: other opinions
Weigh the data: assumptions and quality
Attitude of Inquiry: do not just follow others
Think for Themselves: do not automatically take on other’s beliefs
Fair Thinkers: remove bias
Make Judgments on the Basis of Facts: but
Communication Through Critical Thinking
Reasoning
The Eight Elements of Reasoning
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Purpose or Goal
Question
Ideas or Concepts
Assumptions
Data, Information, and Facts
Inferences
Point of View
Consequences and Implications
Communication Through Critical Thinking
The Eight Elements of Reasoning
Element # 1: Purpose
Purpose is concerned with what we want to accomplish when we reason. In other words
what is our intent, or that of the presenter? We may wish to show that learning can
dramatically improve innovation.
Element #2: Question
What is the consequential question being presented or addressed? Is there one? Why
should I or you be interested in the topic? Is the question /problem related to the
purpose? Questions related to the above purpose might include--Can critical thinking
be employed in organizations to enhance learning and hence innovation?
Communication Through Critical Thinking
The Eight Elements of Reasoning
Element # 3: Ideas or Concepts
It is imperative that the ideas and concepts be clearly stated, and used correctly.
In keeping with the idea of the role that learning plays in innovation, ideas or concepts
such those of Heizenberg, Capra, and Maturana and Varela, should be discussed.
Element # 4: Assumptions
Assumptions are ideas that are taken for granted. Reasoning is based on our existing
assumptions. Identifying and testing assumptions is essential to ensuring correctness.
Surfacing and testing assumptions enables us to prioritize them, and determine which
we need to focus on more. Following the innovation problem, we assume that people
learn in one of three ways--by experimentation, by speculation and by what others tell
them. We might correctly assume therefor that learning can be greatly enhanced by
improved communication.
Communication Through Critical Thinking
The Eight Elements of Reasoning
Element # 5: Data, Information, Facts
It is important to know the source and accuracy of the data, information and facts
employed in an argument Today, much of what we use by way of data comes from the
Internet yet using the Internet is often a questionable way to arrive at facts. It is
important to restrict one’s claims to those that can be supported.
Element # 6: Inferences
Inferences are what people create from concepts and assumptions. It is essential that a
well developed line of reasoning be presented. I may reason that because it is dark
and cloudy, that it will probably rain today. Here I am basing my inference on some
well established data, and knowledge concerning past experiences. Infer only what
evidence implies. Identify the assumptions which lead you to your inference.
Communication through Critical Thinking
The Eight Elements of Reasoning
Element # 7: Point of View
It is important to understand the point of view of the presenter. Does the point of view
exclude other points of view. Does the presenter, or do you for that matter, show a
sensitivity to alternative points of view? For example in explaining how people learn,
does the Gestalt psychologist consider the point of view of the Behaviorist?
Element 8: Consequences and Implications
This is really the point where the individual, regardless of whether he be a presenter or
a reviewer, must evaluate the consequences drawn from the reasoning.
Communication Through Critical Thinking
Reasoning
The Universal Standards
Standard # 1: Clarity
Statements must be clear because if they are not it is difficult to determine whether
they are accurate or relevant. For example, the statement “what we have here is a
communication problem is not clear. Ways to ensure clarity include questions such as:
Could you elaborate further or could you give me an example?
Standard # 2: Accuracy
A statement might be clear, but not accurate. For example the statement” critical
thinking will increase our ability to learn” is not accurate. Ways to ensure accuracy
include questions such as: Is it really true, or how could we check on that?
Communication Through Critical Thinking
Reasoning
The Universal Standards
Standard # 3: Precision
A statement can be clear and accurate, but not precise. For example, the statement
“if we learn to think critically, we will be able to improve our ability to
communicate” is not precise. Questions designed to improve precision include:Could
you give me more details, or could you be more specific?
Standard # 4: Relevance
Statements can be clear, accurate, and precise but not relevant. For example, the
statement “communication will make us better citizens is not relevant to innovation.
Ways to ensure relevance include questions such as:’How is that connected to the
question, or how does that bear on the issue?
Communication Through Critical Thinking
Reasoning
The Universal Standards
Standard # 5: Depth
A statement can contain all of the above standards but not have sufficient depth to
determine whether the reasoning is dealing with the most significant facts. Beware of
structural or surface terms. Ways to ensure depth include questions such as: How does
your answer address the complexities in question?
Standard # 6 Breadth
Breadth ensures that various points of view are examined. In the political area, one
party might delve deeply into an area but fail to take into account the other party’s
point of view. This is dangerous because it avoids important stakeholders and possibly
damaging assumptions. Ways to ensure breadth include questions such as: Is there
another way to look at this, or do we need another point of view?
Communication Through Critical Thinking
Reasoning
The Universal Standards
Standard # 7: Logic
This is really the test to determine whether something makes sense. Checking
statements to ensure a logical framework is important to ensure and protect integrity.
Here we look for contradictions in what has been concluded. Ways to ensure logic
include questions such as: Does statement B follow from what has been said, or does
the first paragraph fit with the last?
Standard # 8: Significance
This really is designed to address the purpose and questions raised initially. Ways to
ensure significance include questions such as: Is this the most important problem to
consider, is this the central idea to focus on, or which of these facts are most
important?
Communication Through Critical Thinking
Reasoning
Critical Intellectual Traits
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Humility: Having a consciousness of the limits of ones knowledge. We should not claim to know
more than we know. It implies the lack of pretentiousness or conceit.
Courage: This requires that individuals challenge what they learn rather than accept it at face
value. This implies the need to look more deeply into various viewpoints that run counter to
those that we hold. Willing to learn, to change, to unlearn, but to have the courage of right
founded convictions.
Empathy: Recognizing the need to put oneself in the place of others. It requires a consciousness
of our egocentric tendencies to identify truth with our perception of previous experience and
beliefs.
Integrity: One must apply the same standards when looking at opposing points of view as when
looking at their own arguments. Honestly admitting errors in ones thought and actions.
Perseverance: Recognizing the need to employ intellectual standards in spite of the difficulties
and obstacles this may present.The recognition that it may take time to make sense of confusing
situations and to develop a necessary deeper understanding or insight.
Critical Thinking
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Why focus on learning?
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The primary goal of all organizations is to prosper and survive.
Profit above the industry average for a sustained period of time is one definition of
competitive advantage.
The rate at which individuals and organizations learn may be the only sustainable source
of competitive advantage.
How do we learn?
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By experimentation…The experimental method
By speculation…Reasoning
By what other sources of learning communicate to us…Communication