Transcript What is knowledge?

Knowledge Based Systems
August 14, 2007
Akiyuki Goto
Faculty of Information Technology
King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology North Bangkok
Revision
1
NOV.10, 2007
First Issue Day
2
NOV.16, 2007
Biology
3
NOV.21, 2007
Biology
4
DEC.3, 2007
GP, AI
5
JAN.18, 2008
Workshop
6
7
8
9
10
CONTENTS
1. Preface
2. Biology
(DNA, Brain, Neuron, Stem cell, Neural net,
Genetic Algorithm, Reproduction, Cellular Automaton)
3. ARIMA
4. Frame Problem
5. Perceptron
6. Data Mining
7. Pattern recognition
8. Fuzzy
9. Expert System
10. Regression Analysis
11. Bioinformatics
12. Artificial Life
13. Tierra
14. Evolution
15. Swarm Intelligence
16. Nanotechnology
17. Carbon Nanotubes
18. Genetic Programming
19. Artificial Intelligence
(Lisp, SQL, SVM, Ontology, Metadata, Semantic web,
Dendral, Turing test)
20. World Wide Web (WWW)
21. Robot
22. Chaos
23. Fractal
24. Virtual reality
25. Bayes’ Theorem
26. Workshop
Glossary
Amino Acids
ARIMA
Artificial Intelligence
Artificial Life
Bayes' Theorem
Bioinformatics
Carbon Nanotubes
Cellular Automaton
Chaos
Codon Table
Data Mining
DNA
Evolution
Expert System
Fractal
Frame Problem
Fuzzy
Genetic Algorithm
Genetic Programming
Glue Logic
Golden Ratio
HTML
Humanoid Robot
Hypermedia
KBS
Lisp
Meta Data
Molecular biology
Mutation
Nanotechnology
Neurons
Nucleus
Ontology
Organic Chemistry
Pattern Recognition
Perceptron
Regression Analysis
RNA
Semantic Web
Stem Cells
Structured Query Language
Support vector machines
Swarm Intelligence
Tierra
TRIZ
Turing Test
Virtual Reality
World Wide Web
XML
1.Preface
This Book covers the wide field, such as artificial brain research, artificial
intelligence, artificial life, artificial living, artificial mind research, brain science,
chaos, cognitive science, complexity, computer graphics, evolutionary
computations, fuzzy control, genetic algorithms, innovative computations,
intelligent control and modelling, micromachines, micro-robot, neural networks,
neurocomputers, neurocomputing technologies and applications, robotics,
virtual reality, expert system
Knowledge-Based Systems focuses on systems that use knowledge-based
techniques to support human decision-making, learning and action. Such
systems are capable of cooperating with human users and so the quality of
support given and the manner of its presentation are important issues. The
emphasis of the book is on the practical significance of such systems in
modern intelligent computer development and application usage.
As well as being concerned with the implementation of
knowledge-based systems, application of knowledge-based
methods, integration with conventional technologies,
software tools for KBS construction, decision-support
mechanisms, user interactions, organisational issues,
knowledge acquisition, knowledge representation, languages
and programming environments, knowledge-based
implementation techniques and system architectures. Also
included are publication reviews.
"knowledge" is an extremely important concept in
considering the direction in which our society should move,
we have not yet identified the important issues yet. For
example: "What is knowledge?"; "Of what practical use is
knowledge?"; or "How can knowledge be created?". Our
approach is to seek the answer to such questions and
consider our future with a focus on "knowledge"
Two kinds of R&D Methods for AI:
1. Achievement of Human Function (Thinking Algorism)
2. Investigation of Human Brain (Neural Cell Network Operation)
Target of KBS:
1. Knowledge base for Machine ------ Logic operation
2. Knowledge base for Human --------Training / Trouble shouting / Education /
Decision making / Diagnosis /
Arrangement of huge information by computer
Good knowledge base:
1. Information quality
2. Searching method
3. Classification
4. Real Time Operation
Evolution of AI:
Research Result
AI
Research Result
Knowledge-based Systems:
(meaning)
- Semantic Web
Knowledge
Computer
Input
Store
Output
- Trouble Shooting
- Manual
- Academic Paper
- Product
Search
Data Base
- Ontology
- Meta Data by XML
with Tag by RDF
(Resource Description Framework)
Quality
Glue Logic :
Mechanics-A
Mechanics-B
Glue Logic
Robot-A
Robot-B
Job Group
Control
The brain of human being is still growing, not perfect yet.
①
②
① 3.5 Billion years ago - Birth of living things
② 350 Million years ago - Birth of Reptile
③ 50 Thousand years ago – Cro-Magnon
③
23:56
②
22
③①
0
6
18
12
Personality impacts on Knowledge
Motivation
Knowledge
Personality
Information
Experience
UP
UP
Knowledge
Motivation
Personality
Improvement
UP
UP
Information
Experience
Personality & Environment impact on Knowledge
Eagerness
Motivation
Knowledge
Personality
Information
Experience
Environment
Complexity
Simple
Golden ratio
1
1
History:
1642 Pascal created the first mechanical digital calculating machine.
1800’s Charles Babbage & Ada Byron (Lady Lovelace) worked on
programmable mechanical calculating machines.
1923 Karel Capek's play "R.U.R." (Rossum's Universal Robots) opens in
London (1923). - First use of the word ‘Robot' in English.
1943 W.McCulloch and W.Pitts Neural Network
1947 The transistor was invented by William Shockley, Walter Brattain, and
John Bardeen.
1950 Turing proposed his test, the Turing Test, to recognize machine
intelligence.
1951 One of the students inspired by Pitts and McCulloch's work was a young
Marvin Minsky, then a 24 year old graduate student. In 1951 (with Dean
Edmonds) he built the first neural net machine, the Minsky was to become
one of the most important leaders and innovators in AI for the next 50 years.
1956 The field of Artificial Intelligence by John McCarthy was founded at
a conference on the campus of Dartmouth University in the summer of 1956.
The first generation of AI researchers believed could create a machine as
intelligent as (or more intelligent than) a human being and that it would
happen soon, in no more than a few decades.
1958 The Lisp programming language was invented by John McCarthy at
MIT. A perceptron was a form of neural network introduced by Frank
Rosenblatt, who had been a schoolmate of Marvin Minsky at the Bronx High
School of Science.
John McCarthy and Marvin Minsky founded the Artificial Intelligence
Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
1959 There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom (Start of Nanotechnology)
1963 The Stanford University founded the Artificial Intelligence
Laboratory under John McCarthy.
1965 H. A. Simon: "machines will be capable, within twenty years, of
doing any work a man can do."
The Robotics Institute was started at Carnegie Mellon University under
Raj Reddy.
1968 Pascal Language
1969 John McCarthy Frame Problem
1970 Marvin Minsky (in Life Magazine): "In from three to eight years we
will have a machine with the general intelligence of an average human
being."
1972 Prolog Language
1976 Ethernet
1982 TCP/IP
1984 Fullerene C60 discovery
1997 Deep Blue became the first computer Chess-playing system to
beat a reigning world Chess champion, Gary Kasparov.
Over 40 teams fielded teams of robotic soccer players in the first
RoboCup competition.
1980 First meeting of the American Association for Artificial Intelligence
held in Stanford, California.
1990’s Emphasis on ontology began.
1991 Carbon nanotubes discovery
1995 Data Mining
1999 Sony Corporation introduced the AIBO
2002 iRobot, founded by researchers at the MIT Artificial Intelligence
Lab
Marvin Minsky in 2006
John McCarthy
Application Product:
machine translation
optical character recognition
industrial robotics
speech recognition
data mining
Game
Google's search engine
robot car was driving on the Autobahn in traffic at up to 180 km/h
autonomous drawing machine
Interactive robot pets
Automatic scheduling
Advanced learning software that works like human tutor
in teaching one-on-one with each student
Face-recognition systems
Washing machines
Virtual Reality
2. Biology
(Double Helix)
1953 discovery of the structure of DNA, by Watson and Crick
Francis Harry Compton Crick
England June 8, 1916~
James Dewey Watson
USA April 6, 1928~
Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid (DNA) is a nucleic acid that contains the genetic
instructions used in the development and functioning of all known living
organisms. The main role of DNA molecules is the long-term storage of
information and DNA is often compared to a set of blueprints, since it
contains the instructions needed to construct other components of cells, such
as proteins and RNA molecules. The DNA segments that carry this genetic
information are called genes, but other DNA sequences have structural
purposes, or are involved in regulating the use of this genetic information.
In a molecule, at least two atoms are joined by shared pairs of electrons in a
covalent bond. It may consist of atoms of the same chemical element, as with
oxygen (O2), or of different elements, as with water (H2O). Atoms and
complexes connected by non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bonds or
ionic bonds are generally not considered single molecules.
Structure of DNA
5’
3’
1’ A
1’
T
1’
1’
34Ǻ
5’
3’
5’
3’
3’
5’
3’
5’
G
C
1’
1’
A
T
5’
3’
1’
1’
C
G
G
C
20Ǻ
1Ǻ (angstrom)
= 10-10 m = 0.1nm
= 100pm
1nm=0.001µm
=0.00000mm
3’
5’
A
T
At top, a G,C base pair with three hydrogen bonds.
At the bottom, A,T base pair with two hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonds are shown as dashed lines.
3’
5’
deoxyribose (C5H10O4 ) Sugar
DNA
phosphoric acid (H3PO4)
nucleobase: Adenine, Tymine, Guanine, Cytosine
nucleobase
nucleobase
Methyl (CH3)
Nucleus
60 trillion Nucleus
DNA: 3 Billion Nucleobase pair
3 x 109
DNA
(2m long)
ATGC/ 2 bits
750Mbyte (1 CD)
Nucleus
mRNA
Protein
Cytoplasm
Ribosome
1. DNA →mRNA
2. mRNA → Ribosome (Protein Factory)
3. tRNA → 20 Amino-acid transferring
4. Genetic code → Amino-acid → Protein
amino-acid
tRNA
m: messenger
t: transfer
April 14, 2003 : Human Genome decoding completion
( The genome size is 3.0×109.)
Its takes about 15 years.
The DNA from a single human cell has a length of ~1.8m.
DNA Copy
This polymerization of amino acids is what creates proteins.
Structures and symbols of the 20 amino acids
Alanine
Arginine
Cysteine
Glutamic acid
Histidine
Isoleucine
Methionine
Theronine
Phenylalanine
Tryptophan
Asparagine
Aapartic acid
Glutamine
Glycine
Leucine
Proline
Tyrosine
Lysine
Serine
Valine
Nine amino acids are generally regarded as essential for humans. They are: isoleucine,
leucine, lysine, threonine, tryptophan, methionine, histidine, valine and phenylalanine.
All living things come from the ocean
Element
Earth Surface
Carbon
(C)
Oxygen
(O)
48.94
Nitrogen
(N)
Human Body
Marin Living Thing
48.32
6.10
23.70
79.90
12.85
1.50
Hydrogen
(H)
0.74
6.60
10.20
Calcium
(Ca)
3.43
3.45
0.04
Sulfur
(S)
1.60
0.14
Phosphorus
(P)
1.58
0.13
Sodium
(Na)
2.77
0.65
0.54
Potassium
(K)
2.44
0.55
0.29
Chlorine
(Cl)
0.12
0.45
1.00
Magnesium
(Mg)
1.98
0.10
0.03
Silicon
(Si)
26.16
Aluminium
(Al)
7.67
Iron
(Fe)
4.72
Titanium
(Ti)
0.41
9 essential amino acid for humans in marine living things
Lysine
Phenylalanine
Leucine
Isoleucine
Tryptophan
Histidine
Methionine
Valin
Threonine
: Protection of Life Style Related Disease
The protein consists of the thousand of amino acids + Peptide = Assimilation
Peptide
Bonito
Water
Sardine
Kelp
Pressure Cooker
Starch
Mix
Boil
Filter
Press
Fertilizer
Press Separation
Oil
Circulation of Sun Flower
Sun Flower Harvest
Paper
Sun Flower
Plant
Flower
Food
Bite
Fuel Process Leaf
Soap
Bio Diesel
Fertilizer
Brain:
In animals, the brain (enkephalos) (Greek for "in the skull"), is the control
center of the central nervous system, responsible for behavior. The brain
is located in the head, protected by the skull and close to the primary
sensory apparatus of vision, hearing, equilibrioception (balance), sense of
taste, and olfaction. While all vertebrates have a brain, most invertebrates
have either a centralized brain or collections of individual ganglia.
Primitive animals such as sponges do not have a brain at all. Brains can
be extremely complex. For example, the human brain contains more than
100 billion neurons, each linked to as many as 10,000 other neurons.
10B~100B Neurons
Brain
Synapses
Neurons
Dendrites (Input )
Synapses
Cell Body
( Body )
Axon
( Output )
Dendrite
Synapse
Cell Body
Axon
Weight
IN 1
w1
IN 2
w2
x1
x2
n
∑ wixi
Output
i=1
IN i
Input
wi
xi
Threshold
Weight
Output
Dendrites receives the pulse through Synapses.
↓
Input signal supply to the Neuron.
↓
Voltage rises up.
↓
If the voltage is go over the threshold.
↓
The pulse is transferred to the Axon.
↓
The pulse is transferred to next Neurons through the
Synapses.
(Normal: -60mV)
Synapse
Electrical Excitement
Ca ion
Synapse Parcel
0mV
Threshold
-70mV
Synapse
( 6K ~ 40K / neuron )
Spain Synapse
Excitement Synapse
Suppression Synapse
Cell Body
Dendrites
Axon
The Neuron
They have a very high requirement for oxygen; they can't live without
oxygen for more than a few minutes. They lose their ability to reproduce
soon after birth, but they can regenerate cell processes if the cell body
remains intact.
Cell Body
Synapse
Axon
Memory and learning are so closely connected that people often confuse
them with each other. But the specialists who study them consider them two
distinct phenomena.
These specialists define learning as a process that will modify a
subsequent behaviour.
Memory, on the other hand, is the ability to remember past experiences.You
learn a new language by studying it, but you then speak it by using your
memory to retrieve the words that you have learned.
Memory is essential to all learning, because it lets you store and retrieve the
information that you learn. Memory is basically nothing more than the record
left by a learning process.
Thus, memory depends on learning. But learning also depends on memory,
because the knowledge stored in your memory provides the framework to
which you link new knowledge, by association. And the more extensive your
framework of existing knowledge, the more easily you can link new
knowledge to it.
Learning
Memory
Knowledge
This is a model of a typical brain cell, or neuron. Your brain contains billions
of brain cells. A brain cell consists of a cell body, which stores the DNA,
dendrites which receive chemical signals from other cells, and an axon,
which carries an electrical signal from the cell body to the axon terminals.
The axon terminals contain chemicals, called "neurotransmitters," which
are released in order for the cell to communicate with nearby cells.
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter, and some brain cells have axons that
contain only serotonin. These are called "serotonin neurons." Other brain
cells produce and release different neurotransmitters, like dopamine or
norepinephrine, and some produce and release more than one
neurotransmitter. However, your serotonin cells only produce and release
serotonin.
Neurons are the specialized cells of the nervous system. The neurons are
responsible for the transmission of electrical impulses to and from the central
nervous system. The main structures of the neuron are, the cell body, the
axon, and the dendrite. Each neuron is equipped with hundreds of dendrites,
but only one axon. This places an enormous importance on the axon. The
synaptic cleft is also an important feature of neurons. The synaptic cleft is a
region of the neuron. It is the area between neurons. This region is
responsible for the separation of neurons. The neuron is composed of
dendrites, the soma, the axon, and a cell body. The cell body contains the
normal organelles; such as mitochondria and the endoplasmic reticulum. The
size of neurons differs, but neurons usually range from two to five hundred
microns in diameter.
Neurotransmitters are chemical substances found within the neuropodium.
The purpose of the neurotransmitter is to aid in the transmission of the
nervous impulse. The electrical impulse is not capable in diffusing across the
synapse. Due to a lacking capabilities of the nervous impulse, a large burden
is place on the neurotransmitter. The synapse is the area located between the
neurons. Neurons are not connected or closely packed together, as in other
tissues of the body. All communication between neurons takes place within the
synapse. All nerve impulses must travel across the synaptic gap. The
neurotransmitter is the chemical substance which accomplishes the task of
crossing the synaptic gap.
In the central nervous system, serotonin is believed to play an important role
as a neurotransmitter, in the regulation of anger, aggression, body
temperature, mood, sleep, vomiting, sexuality, and appetite.
The dendrite is another section of the neuron which aids in the nervous
transmission. The dendrite is one of the many cytoplasmic branches of the
neural body. The dendrite aids in transmission by conducting and receiving
terminations of neurons. The dendrites are also responsible for receiving
impulses from neurotransmitters. Dendrites are characterized as stretching
out across the synapse. Dendrites are also known as dendrite processes.
The axon is the most important section of the neuron. The main purpose of
the neuron is to allow a transmission of a message from one cell to another.
This transmission would never occur, had there not be the axon. The axon is
the long finger like projection of the neural body, the cell body of the neuron.
The human brain is composed of billions of nerve cells which communicate
through specialized connections called synapses. At each synapse, a
chemical neurotransmitter is released from one cell and binds to receptors
on the second cell. This chemical transmission generates electrical and
biochemical signals in the second cell that are then passed along to a
network of nerve cells. Thus, a synapse is the basic unit of communication in
the brain, and research on synaptic function is central to understanding how
we think and learn. Building the correct network of synapses is essential for
brain development.
Since neurons form a network of electrical activities, they somehow have to
be interconnected. This connection is not a simple continuity of cytoplasm,
so that every neuron has electrical continuity with all others, as happens
with simple wiring, but is carried out by very specialized and complex
structures called synapses. A synapse is the place where two neurons join
in such a way that a signal can be transmitted from one to the other. The
typical and overwhelmingly most abundant type of synapse is the one in
which the axon of one neuron activates a second neuron, usually making a
synapse with one of its dendrites or with the cell body. There are two ways in
which this can happen, one is by the coupling of ion channels at the
synapse, creating a passage way for the traveling ionic flux of the action and
membrane potentials, which is called an electrical synapse, and the other
is by a much more complicated way called a chemical synapse. In the case
of the chemical synapse, the two neurons are not in strict contact, but have
a small gap between them called the synaptic cleft. The signal is
transmitted when one neuron releases a chemical (called neurotransmitter)
into the synaptic cleft which is detected by the second neuron thru activation
of receptors placed exactly opposite to the release site. The binding of the
neurotransmitter to the receptors causes a series of physiological changes
in the second neuron which constitutes the signal. Usually the release from
the first neuron is caused by a series of intracellular events evoked by a
depolarization of its membrane, and almost invariably when an action
potential takes place. The signal that is evoked in the second neuron is in
the form of a depolarization of its membrane.