Transcript Evolution

EVOLUTION
PART I
“H OW SCIENTIFIC THEORIES ARE DEVELOPED ,
H ISTORY, AND MAJOR CONTRIBUTORS ”
SCIENTIFIC
THEORIES

A scientific theory is a concept that has been well
tested, and is accepted as an explanation to a wide
range of observations.
SCIENTIFIC
THEORIES

The scientific method uses objective experimentation
to predict, verify, or refute, an assertion made by a
theory.

Based on the results of the experiment(s), the theory is
modified.

The processes involved with prediction, observation,
verification (or refuting) are repeated, continually
testing and modifying the theory until the theory fits
all possible experimental observations.
SCIENTIFIC THEORIES & THE
THEORY OF EVOLUTION

According to most scientists, all life on Earth has a common
ancestor.

In order to produce the immense amount of difference
among all living organisms, certain ones had to evolve into
distinct species.

This differentiation occurred through evolution.

Populations of organisms developed different traits,
through mechanisms such as mutation.

Those with traits that were more beneficial to survival
were naturally selected for survival; hence the term natural
selection.
SCIENTIFIC THEORIES & THE
THEORY OF EVOLUTION

The theory of evolution through natural selection
provides a scientific explanation for the history of life
on earth as depicted in the fossil record and in the
similarities evident within the diversity of existing
organisms.
H UTTON AND LYELL

Sir Charles Lyell provided conclusive evidence for
the theory of uniformitarianism (gradualism) which
had been developed originally by the late 18th
century Scottish geologist, James Hutton.
Hutton
Lyell
H UTTON AND LYELL

Lyell documented the fact that the earth must be very old
and that it has been subject to the same sort of natural
processes in the past that operate today in shaping the
land.

These forces include erosion, earthquakes, glacial
movements, volcanoes, and even
decomposition of plants and
animals.
the
H UTTON AND LYELL

This held that the natural forces now changing the shape
of the earth's surface have been operating in the past
much the same way.

In other words,

This revolutionary idea was instrumental in leading
Charles Darwin to his understanding of biological
evolution in the 1830's.
the present is the key
to understanding the past.
C HARLES D ARWIN

Darwin is considered as the
“father” of evolution

Losing his passion to become a
doctor in med school he took to
the sea to become a “naturalist” in
1831


The name of the ship he spent 5
years on was the Beagle
Darwin returned to England in
1836 with pages of notes from
what he saw as well as many
specimens from his journey
C HARLES D ARWIN

Darwin spent 36 days on the
Galapagos Islands

These islands are located West
of the Northern part of South
America off the coast of
Ecuador

The Galapagos islands were
an undisturbed island chain
void of humans for thousands
of years

What Darwin found
astonished him!
C HARLES D ARWIN

Because of geographic
isolation, the inhabitants of
the Galapagos evolved
without predators


This allowed humans to get
as close as they wanted to
research the animals
Many species were the
same species he found on
other continents but, they
had key differences!

For example, a species of
cacti normally only 5 feet tall
grew to heights of 20 feet!
And lizards swam and
ate algae
from the rocks
C HARLES D ARWIN

One of the observations that spawned
Darwin’s curiosity was the amazing
similarities between animals of different
species!

Darwin also noticed that plants and
animals had unique characteristics within
the same species as well!
I MPORTANT V OCABULARY


Natural variation – is defined as
differences among individuals of the
same species

Interspecific variation – is variation among
individuals of the same species

Intraspecific variation – variation among
individuals of different species
Artificial selection – artificial selection is
similar to selective breeding (being
“chosen”)

An example would be the selection for a
mate that birds go through
I MPORTANT V OCABULARY

Adaptation – any inherited characteristic
that increases and organism’s chance of
survival

Adaptations can be a physical characteristic
or a more complex behavior

This lizard is known as the Thorny Devil and it
lives in the harsh outback of Australia where
there is very little water

To get water, it’s body has special channels
that lead water to the corners of its mouth
and all it has to do is gulp to draw the
moisture from the air that has condensed
on its body (via capillary action)
I MPORTANT V OCABULARY

Natural selection – aka. Survival of the
fittest is defined as nature “selecting”
individuals with characteristics making
them well suited to their environment

Over time, natural selection results in
changes in the inherited characteristics of
a population. These changes increase a
species’ fitness in its environment.
G ENES AND V ARIATION

A group of interbreeding individuals is
known as a population

The genome of an individual organism
is all of the genes that organism
possesses worldwide

The gene pool is ALL of the genes in a
population including all of the ‘possible’
alleles


For example: in Basenji puppies they can
have 1 of 4 coat colors
The relative frequency is how often that
gene occurs in the gene pool
G ENES AND V ARIATION

Natural Selection and trait distribution

Directional selection is when individuals in
a population have a higher fitness over those
in the middle range or lower range

This causes a “shift” in the fitness towards one
particular phenotype

As an example: Suppose that there were many
different height giraffes in a region of Africa that
underwent sever climatic change

The food availability is now 8’ higher than before and
only a limited number of giraffe can actually reach the
resource

This would be directional selection
N ATURAL S ELECTION IN
P OPULATIONS

In any population of organisms
there is variation within the
species

There are organisms that fit
into a “bell curve” whereby the
largest percent of the
population is in the center with
slightly different variations on
either side
These are two bell curves
shown above. The mean is
the average and the majority of
the population phenotype. The
curve represents the entire
variation within the population
D IRECTIONAL S ELECTION

Directional selection

is the effect of a shift in a population’s phenotype in
response to natural selection towards a more favored
phenotype from the variation within the original
population
D ISRUPTIVE S ELECTION
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Disruptive selection
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Occurs when both extreme phenotypes are
favored by natural selection while the mean
population is selected against by something
in nature
S TABILIZING S ELECTION
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Stabilizing selection

Occurs when the mean phenotype is highly favored in the
environment and becomes even more dominant in the
population

This can lead to a lower diversity which makes species
susceptible to disease or other limiting factors
EVOLUTION
PART
II
E XPLANATIONS FOR E VOLUTION

Catastrophism


states that natural disasters like floods and earthquakes have happened
during Earth’s long history and that they have caused species extinction
in some cases
Gradualism

Canyons carved by rivers are examples of gradual changes over time
altering the landscape
E XPLANATIONS FOR E VOLUTION

Uniformitarianism

Geologic processes that shape the earth are uniform through
time and can be seen by look at rock strata like an ancient
“yearbook”
E XPLANATIONS FOR E VOLUTION

Fossils !

Traces of organisms that lived in the past

After deposition into the Earth some specimens are “preserved”
and their bones, over a long period of time, become mineralized
into a rock-like substance we call fossils
E VIDENCE FOR E VOLUTION

Charles Darwin saw evidence for evolution in his travels that
convinced him that life must have evolved over time
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Fossils – Darwin found fossils that closely resembled living
counterparts

Geography – as Darwin traveled from island to island he
noticed similar species with different adaptations depending
on food sources


Biogeography- is the study of different organisms and their
relatedness around the world
Embryology – comparison of embryos between similar species
shows closely similar traits!
E VIDENCE FOR E VOLUTION

Anatomy – some of Darwin's best evidence came from
the comparison of the body parts of different species

Homologous structures – are features that are
similar in structure but appear in different
organisms and often have different functions

Analogous structures – structures that perform a
similar function but are not similar in origin

Vestigial structures – remnants of organs or
structures that had a function in an early ancestor
E VIDENCE FOR E VOLUTION
N ATURAL S ELECTION

One of the accepted definitions for natural selection is:


“the mechanism by which individuals that have
inherited, beneficial adaptations produce more
offspring (on average) than do other individuals”
Darwin was comparing the rates of reproduction in
nature to that of human reproduction according to
Malthus and concluded:

“variation within a population must be the answer to
success in population growth”
Four Main Principles of Natural Selection:


Variation – heritable differences exist in all populations and
natural selection “acts on” those traits present in the
environment

Overproduction – having many offspring results in competition
for resources and promotes natural selection

Adaptation – the better adapted individuals in any population
live longer and pass their successful genes to their offspring

Descent with modification – over time, natural selection will
result in species with adaptations that make them well suited for
survival and reproduction in that particular environment
N ATURAL S ELECTION

MAIN IDEA


Natural selection “acts on” phenotypes rather than on the
genetic material itself. New alleles are not “made” by natural
selection – they occur by natural selection. Natural selection can
act only on traits that exist in a population!
Fitness –

The measure of the ability to survive long enough to produce
“successful” offspring

The key is to have your offspring survive long enough to have
their own offspring
M ECHANISMS OF E VOLUTION

Natural selection is not the only mechanism by which
populations evolve

Gene flow – the movement of alleles between
populations

Genetic drift – a change in allele frequencies due to
chance

Bottleneck effect – genetic drift that occurs after an
even greatly reduces the size of a population

Founder effect – genetic drift that occurs after a
small number of individuals colonize a new area
M ECHANISMS OF E VOLUTION

Bottleneck effect occurs after
an event greatly reduces the
size of a population such as
over hunting or a meteor
from outer space!
M ECHANISMS OF E VOLUTION

Random mutations occur in populations that may provide
a new allele that is advantageous or not. Changes in allele
frequency are due to genetic drift
FACTORS IN E VOLUTION

Genetic drift – allele
frequencies change due to
chance

Gene flow – movement of
alleles from one population
to another

Mutation – new alleles form
through mutation

Sexual selection – certain
traits improve mating
success and increase in
frequency
E VOLUTION PART
III
S PECIATION THROUGH
I SOLATION

Main Idea: New species can arise when populations are isolated

Isolation – if gene flow between species stops for any reason,
the populations are “isolated”

Speciation – is the rise of two or more species from one
existing species

Four types of Isolation:

Reproductive isolation

Behavioral isolation

Geographic isolation

Temporal isolation
R EPRODUCTIVE I SOLATION
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Reproductive isolation occurs when members of
different populations are no longer able to mate
successfully with each other
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Two cases:
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Not physically able to mate
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They cannot produce offspring able to survive
Reproductive isolation between populations is the
final step in speciation
B EHAVIORAL I SOLATION
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A large part of the mating process involves rituals, chemical
signals, songs, and courtship dances
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Behavioral isolation occurs when members of a population
are not “accepted” because of their behavior or improper
courtship rituals

Example – the flashing patterns
in male and female fireflies

Example – the courtship song and dance of the lyre bird in South
Australia
G EOGRAPHIC I SOLATION

In geographic isolation there are physical barriers that divide a
population into two or more groups

Rivers, mountains, dried lake beds, or man-made barriers

When populations are separated long enough, they may evolve
different adaptations and undergo speciation
T EMPORAL I SOLATION

A temporal barrier is one that prevents
reproduction because of “timing”

Bird migrations are often governed by
changing of the seasons and food
availability for their young
PATTERNS IN E VOLUTION

As new species arise they are under pressure to
survive. Adaptive traits are kept in a population
through natural selection but, sudden changes in an
environment can eliminate one or more species
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In science, the terms chance and random refer to how
easily an outcome can be predicted

Mutation and genetic drift cannot be predicted so
they are considered random events
PATTERNS IN E VOLUTION

Natural selection, which acts on diversity, is not
random. Individuals with traits that adapt them
to their environment better have a better
chance of surviving and passing on those
adaptations to future generations.

It is important to remember that it is the
environment that controls the direction of
natural selection
C ONVERGENT E VOLUTION

Different species around the world adapt to similar environments

When evolution towards similar traits in unrelated organisms
develops it is called convergent evolution

The habitat will favor those best adapted for survival (natural
selection)
D IVERGENT E VOLUTION

When closely related species evolve in different directions, they
become increasingly different through divergent evolution

As time passed in different habitats, several species of primates
evolved from a common
ancestor
S PECIES E VOLUTION


Main Idea: Species can shape each other over time

As species interact they form relationships
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Close species interaction is called symbiosis

As species compete, cooperate, and interact in various ways their
evolutionary paths may become connected
Two types of these interactions:

Coevolution – the process by which two or more species evolve in response to
changes in the other

“Evolutionary arms race” – a type of coevolution where species respond to other
species they are competing with

Often times this occurs in predator-prey relationships where the prey evolves to
escape the evolving predator as the predator evolves to better catch its prey
S PECIES C OEVOLUTION

One such relationship in nature is
between ants and aphids

Ants prefer nectar and “herd” the
aphids like sheep to the most
succulent parts of a plant for the
aphids to eat

The aphids produce a nectar from
their abdomen which the ants love!

In return for the nectar, the ants
protect the aphids from their most
feared predator – the ladybug!
S PECIES E XTINCTION

Extinction – the
elimination of a species
from the Earth

Background extinctions extinctions that occur
continuously at a very low
rate caused by many
reasons

Mass extinctions – sudden,
rare events that cause
hundreds, thousands, and
sometimes millions of
species to become extinct
A DAPTIVE R ADIATION

As one species diversifies into many
descendent species it is called adaptive
radiation

This type of speciation usually follows a
mass extinction and creates a Huge
diversity of species in a relatively short
period of time
The diagram shows a Species A that moves to
an island displaying the founder effect and
Species A undergoes adaptive radiation
inhabiting a range of
islands and habitats.
G EOLOGIC T IME

Scientific evidence shows us that the Earth is
about 4.5 billion years old!

There are many tools scientists use to
discover this

Index fossils are fossils of organisms that
existed only during a specific time period

The trilobite to the right is one of the most
abundant fossils during the Paleozoic Era
G EOLOGIC T IME

There are a couple methods for determining the age of fossils

Relative dating gives you an estimate of the time period of an
organism based upon the rock layer in which it is found


This method is not very accurate for exact measurements
Radiometric dating uses isotopes of organic elements to
determine a fairly exact age of a substance relative to the
decay of the organic elements found in a sample (usually
Carbon-14)

This is accurate to a few hundred years or less
R ADIOMETRIC D ATING
S PECIES C LASSIFICATION BASED UPON
E VOLUTIONARY R ELATIONSHIPS

As we look at animals it is apparent that
similar animals have a lot in common

Example: modern dogs and
wolves share a common ancestor

The phylogeny of a species is the
evolutionary history of that species

The most common way to make an
evolutionary tree is through cladistics
which is a classification based on
common ancestry