Transcript Final Exam Review PowerPointx

Semester Wrap-Up and Final
Exam Review
BSC 2010
Fall 2013
Final Exam
• SI Final Exam Review: Tuesday, December 3rd
from 10:30 AM - 12:30 PM
• Student Union, 2nd floor, Key West 218ABCD
room (minirooms A, B, C, and D will be
combined into one room for this purpose).
Final Exam
• Final Exams:
• Section 2 (10:30 am – 11:20 am): Monday, Dec.
9th from 10:00 am to 12:50 pm
• Section 3 (11:30 am – 12:20 pm): Wednesday,
Dec. 4th from 10 am to 12:50 pm
– You must attend the final exam for your registered
class
– Exam collection will begin 1 hr after exam begins, no
students will be permitted to begin exam after
collection begins
• What You Need to Bring:
– Pencil, Photo ID, Calculator
Final Exam
• Total Number of Questions: 75 questions + 5
bonus point questions
– Old Material: 39 questions
– New Material: 36 questions
• Review Document posted on Webcourses
• Types of Questions:
1. Multiple Choice
2. True/False
Final Exam
• Chapters 1 and 2
• Main Concepts:
• Biology is the study of life
– Taxonomy
• Chemistry
– Molecular Bonds
• Scientific Method and Hypotheses
• Vocabulary:
– Valence shell
Hypotheses
• H0 = There is no difference
• Example: There will be no difference in the
stalking behavior of lions born in zoos and lions
born in the wild
• HA = There is a difference
• Example: Lions born in the wild will stalk prey
more efficiently than those born in zoos.
Chapter 2
• Molecular Bonds between Atoms
• The outermost orbital is called the valence shell.
• When the valence electrons of atoms interact
chemical bonds are formed
• Several types are important in biological systems:
– Covalent- electrons are shared
– Ionic- transfer of electrons
– Hydrogen- biologically important bonds
Final Exam
• Chapters 3 and 4
• Main Concepts: Chemistry of Life
– Acids, Bases, and pH scale
– Functional Groups
• Vocabulary
– Enantiomers
Final Exam
• Chapter 5
• Main Concepts: Organic Molecules
– Proteins
– Nucleic Acids
• Vocabulary:
– Denaturation
Protein Structure
• Primary Structure: Unique sequence of amino acids:
sequence is determined by genetic material
• Secondary Structure: coiling /folding as a result of
hydrogen bonding
• Tertiary Structure: 3-D shape due to bonding of R-groups
• Quaternary Structure: association of 2 or more
polypeptides
Final Exam
• Chapter 6, 7, 8
• Main Concepts: Cells
– Cell Theory
– Plasma Membrane Structure
• Active vs Passive Transport
– Competitive Inhibitors
• Vocabulary:
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Gap Junctions
Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes
Hypertonic, Hypotonic, Isotonic
Uniport, Symport
Introduction
• Cell is smallest functional unit of life
• Cell theory:
–all organisms composed of cells
–all existing cells arise from pre-existing cells
• There are two main types of cells:
– Prokaryotes (lack nucleus)
– Eukaryotes (true nucleus)
• Common characteristics of all cells:
– cell contents surrounded by plasma membrane
– cytoplasm consists of semifluid matrix
– organelles are embedded in cytoplasm
– contain genes in the form of DNA
Cell Membrane Structure
• Phospholipids of membranes form bilayers
– phospholipids have polar “head” and nonpolar
“tail”
– form stable bilayer in water with heads out and
tails in
– hydrophobic interior forms barrier to hydrophilic
molecules
Membrane Function
• Water balance between cells and surroundings
critical
– cell membranes semi-permeable
– cells in isotonic solution do not change size -no osmosis
– cells in hypotonic solution gain water
– cells in hypertonic solutions lose water
Final Exam
• Chapters 9 and 10
• Main Concepts: Energy Production
– Cellular Respiration
– Photosynthesis
• Vocabulary
• Autotrophs
• Heterotrophs
• Fermentation
Overview of Energy
Production
• Photosynthesis
– Occurs in chloroplasts of
autotrophs
– Uses energy from
sunlight to fix carbon
dioxide into organic
molecules (glucose)
• Cellular Respiration
– Occurs in mitochondria
– Glucose is broken down
yielding energy (ATP)
Final Exam
• Chapters 12 and 13
• Main Concepts: Cellular Reproduction
– Mitosis
– Meiosis
• Vocabulary
– Homologous Chromosomes
– Sister Chromatids
– Crossing Over
Mitosis vs Meiosis
Meiosis and Genetic Diversity
Natural selection results in the accumulation of genetic
variations favored by the environment
Sexual reproduction contributes to the genetic
variation in a population, which originates from
mutations, through multiple processes:
1. Independent orientation of chromosomes
2. Random Fertilization
3. Homologous chromosomes can have different
versions of genes
4. Crossing Over
Final Exam Review
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Chapters 14 and 15
Main Concepts: Patterns of Inheritance
Gregor Mendel
Punnett Square
– 1 trait
– 2 traits
– Sex-linked
• Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
• Vocabulary:
– Homozygous and Heterozygous
– Alleles, genotypes, phenotypes
– Dominant and recessive
Gregor Mendel
• Gregor Mendel, Austrian monk
– Documented a particulate
mechanism in the 1800s by
experiments with garden pea plants
• 1860s- Studied inheritance patterns
in pea plants
– Character= heritable feature with multiple variations
– Trait= each type of variation for a character
– At this time, chromosomes and genes had not been
discovered yet
• Used the term heritable factors to represent what we call a gene
Example: White Tigers
White Male (aa)
White male mated
with orange female
Orange Female (AA)
a
a
A
A
Aa
Aa
Aa
Aa
All cubs = orange
Genotype
Probability:
100%
Heterozygous
Dihybrid Cross
Sex-linked genes have unique patterns
of inheritance
• Sex-linked gene= genes located on sex
chromosomes
– X chromosome has many genes unrelated to sex
– Y chromosome has very few genes
• The SRY gene on the Y chromosome codes for a protein that
directs the development of male anatomical features
• Females- 2 copies of X chromosome
– Typical dominant-recessive relationship
– Females can be carriers of sex-linked disorders
• Males- 1 copy of X chromosome
– Only needs one copy of allele to express trait
– Sex-linked disorders tend to affect mostly males
Genetics
• Late 1800s- Mitosis and Meiosis described
• Early 1900s- Scientists noticed similarities
between chromosome behavior and Mendel’s
“heritable factors”
• Chromosome Theory of Inheritance: genes
occupy specific loci on chromosomes and it is
the chromosomes which undergo segregation
and independent assortment during meiosis
– The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis can
account for Mendel’s laws of segregation and
independent assortment
Final Exam Review
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Chapters 16 and 17
Main Concepts: DNA
DNA Structure
DNA Replication
Transcription and Translation
Genetic Code
Vocabulary:
– Codon and Anticodon
– Dominant and recessive
DNA= Deoxyribonucleic acid
• Double helix structure
– Nitrogenous bases pair in center, forming
hydrogen bonds
– Strands are complementary
• Adenine-Thymine
• Cytosine-Guanine
• Chargaff’s Rule
– A=T and G=C
– Strand are antiparallel
DNA Replication
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Purpose= copy genetic code
Occurs in nucleus
Occurs during S phase of cell cycle
Necessary for cellular division
Flow of Genetic Information
DNA
RNA
Transcription
Protein
Translation
Evolution of the Genetic Code
Genetic code is nearly universal…
From unicellular organisms….
..to multicellular animals
Second mRNA base
UUU
U
UUC
UUA
First mRNA base (5 end of codon)
UAC
UGC
Cys
U
C
UCG
UAG Stop
UGG
Trp
G
CUU
CCU
CAU
CGU
U
CUC
CCC
CAC
CGC
C
Leu
UCA
Ser
UGU
A
Leu
CCA
Pro
CAA
CUG
CCG
CAG
AUU
ACU
AAU
ACC
AAC
AUC
Ile
AUA
AUG
G
UCC
Tyr
UGA Stop
CUA
A
Phe
UAU
UCU
G
UAA Stop
UUG
C
A
C
ACA
Met or
start
Thr
AAA
His
Gln
Asn
Lys
CGA
Arg
CGG
AGU
AGC
AGA
A
G
Ser
Arg
U
C
A
ACG
AAG
AGG
GUU
GCU
GAU
GGU
U
GUC
GCC
GAC
GGC
C
GUA
GUG
Val
GCA
GCG
Ala
GAA
GAG
Asp
Glu
GGA
GGG
Gly
G
A
G
Genetic code:
-Redundant
-Not
Ambiguous
Third mRNA base (3 end of codon)
U
Final Exam Review
• Chapter 22
• Main Concepts
• History of Evolution of Species
– Jean Baptiste Lamarck and Charles Darwin
• Theory of Evolution
– Unifying theory of biology
• Natural Selection
Evolutionary Adaptations of Organisms
• Evolution
– Change through time
– Descent with modification
– Genetic changes in population from generation to generation
• Adaptations
– Inheritable characteristic
– Gives organism better chance of survival and reproductive
success in a specific environment
• Natural Selection
– Individuals with certain inheritable characteristics have better
chance of survival and reproductive success compared to
individuals without those characteristics
– Unequal reproductive success leads to accumulation of
favorable characteristics in population
Theory of Evolution
• Pattern of Evolution
– Observations from natural world
– Collected from variety of fields
• Biology, geology, physics, chemistry
• Process of Evolution
– Mechanisms causing change
• Unifying theory of biology
– Explains and connects observations from natural
world
3 Key Points to Evolution by Natural
Selection
• Individuals do not evolve, populations evolve
– Evolution occurs as adaptations accumulate in
populations over several generations
• Natural selection only works on heritable traits
with variation in the population
– Acquired traits are not passed to offspring
• Evolution is not working towards a specific goal
or “perfect” organisms
– Natural selection results from an organism interacting
with a specific environment
– Characteristics favorable in one environment may not
be favorable in another
Final Exam Review
• Chapter 22
• Vocabulary
– Vestigial structures
– Homologous structures
– Intrasexual Selection
– Intersexual Selection
– Sexual Dimorphism
Final Exam Review
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Chapter 23
Main Concepts
Types of Natural Selection
Limits of Natural Selection
Heterozygote Advantage
Microevolution
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
Evolution of a Population
• Types of Natural Selection
– Directional Selection
• Highest reproduction in one
extreme phenotype
– Stabilizing Selection
• Highest reproduction of
intermediate phenotypes
– Disruptive Selection
• Highest reproduction of two
extreme phenotypes
• Often leads to speciation
1
Generations
2
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Heterozygote Advantage
• Homozygous Dominant
– No sickle cell allele
– Susceptible to malaria
• Homozygous Recessive
– Sickle-cell disease
– Resistant to malaria
• Heterozygotes= co-dominant
alleles, both types of blood cells
– Heterozygotes have decreased
symptoms of malaria and
decreased symptoms of sickle-cell
disease
– Higher survival
Limits of Natural Selection
• Selection can only act on existing variation in a
population.
– New alleles do not appear when needed
• Evolution is limited by historical constraints.
– Ancestral structures are adapted to new situations
• Adaptations are usually compromises.
– One characteristic may be an adaptation in one situation, a
disadvantage in another
• Natural selection interacts with chance/random
events and the environment.
– Chance events can alter allele frequencies in population
– Environment can change
Types of Evolution
• Microevolution= change in the gene pool of a
population over many generations
• 4 Methods of Microevolution
– Mutations
• May be deleterious or neutral
– Natural Selection
• Process in which individuals with favorable inherited traits
are more likely to survive and reproduce
– Genetic Drift= chance events cause genetic changes
from one population to the next
– Gene Flow= individuals or gametes move to a
different population
Hardy-Weinberg Principle
• When allele frequencies remain constant from
generation to generation, the population is in HardyWeinberg equilibrium
• Equations: Allele Frequencies: p + q = 1
Genotype frequencies: p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
• Assumptions:
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No natural selection
No mutation
No gene flow
Random mating
Large population
Final Exam Review
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Chapter 23
Vocabulary
Cline
Genetic Drift
Bottleneck effect
Founder effect
Gene Flow
Final Exam Review
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Chapter 24
Main Concepts
Speciation
Biological Species Concept
Reproductive Barriers
– Pre-zygotic and Post-zygotic
• Macroevolution
– Mass extinction and adaptive radiation
Speciation
• New species can arise from reproductive
isolation between populations
– No migration or gene flow
• Process of one species separating into 2 or
more species
– Development of new species leads to biodiversity
• Allopatric Speciation vs. Sympatric Speciation
Defining a “Species”
• Biological Species Concept
– Group of populations with potential for successful
breeding in nature and to create fertile offspring
• Biological Species Concept is widely accepted
and used by biologists today
• Some situations require alternative concepts:
– Identifying new species in the fossil record
– Identifying prokaryotes (reproduce asexually)
Reproductive Barriers
Two Types of Barriers:
1. Prezygotic Barriers= prevents mating or fertilization from
happening
2. Postzygotic Barriers= happens after fertilization occurs,
prevents viable, reproductive offspring
Types of Evolution
• Macroevolution= change in groups above the
level of species, often results in new taxonomic
groups
• Methods of Macroevolution
– Adaptive radiation= periods of change when many
new species originate from a common ancestor
– Mass extinctions= large number of species go extinct
within a relatively short amount of time
• Environmental change
• 5 mass extinctions have occurred through geological time
with 50% or more species lost
– Plate tectonics and Continental drift= movement of
Earth’s plates
Final Exam Review
• Chapter 24
• Vocabulary
– Speciation
– Allopatric and Sympatric Speciation
– Mass extinction
– Adaptive radiation
– Continental drift