Transcript piche bio 2 CRIM 2330 03 FASD Handout

‘Biology of Crime’
Psychophysiological Factors
Neuropsychological Factors
PART 2
Evolutionary Psychology
Is is a way of thinking about human behavior using an
evolutionary theoretical framework.
how particular genes (attributes, traits) came to be
present in our species in the first place.
Ultimate (distal) explanations ask questions about
function and adaptation for an entire species
“why did humans develop the capacity for speech,
emotion, or aggression?
Identifying evolutionary function of behaviors that
contribute to survival of individuals
Darwinism
Charles Darwin wrote: On the Origin of Species (1859)
Darwin made two key points in his book:
1.
2.
Species did not all exist in their current form but evolved or
transformed from ancestral species
Evolutionary mechanism for this transformation was natural
selection
Evolutionary Psychology
Humans intimately tied to animal ancestry
Human aggression and violence is a result of innate,
biological needs to obtain sufficient food supplies,
territory, status, and mates
Human cognitive and emotional processes have been
selected in our evolutionary environment as devices for
solving particular adaptive problems faced by hunters
and gatherers
Selection Process – Hunters and
Gatherers
Ancestral environment comprised of various adaptive problems (finding mate,
hunting, gathering, protecting children, avoiding predators, finding shelter)
‘hunters’ and ‘gatherers’ who successfully responded to adaptive problems
survived and lived long enough to reproduce children and pass successful
adaptations on to next generation
Unsuccessful responses resulted in death or reduced capacity to reproduce
A successful adaptation – be it biological or psychological, is in an individual’s
genetic makeup so the only way adaptations can be passed on is through
genetic rather than cultural transmission
Evolution by Natural Selection
Natural selection “selects” the
favorable variants and preserves
them in later generations.
Natural selection continuously adjusts
populations to their environments;
we call these adjustments
adaptations.
The Evolution of Criminal Behavior: Crime is Normal?
If criminal behavior is normal, it must have some
evolutionary advantage on our distant ancestors.
It is the traits underlying criminal behavior not the specific
acts that are the alleged adaptations.
The Evolution of Criminal Behavior: Crime is Normal
Criminal behavior is a way to acquire valued resources by
exploiting and deceiving others.
Although we all have the potential to exploit and deceive
others, we are a highly social and cooperative species.
Some evolutionary theories of crime focus on sexuality as the
prime motivator of human behavior.
The Evolution of Criminal Traits
The two strategies that any species can follow to maximize
reproductive success:
Parenting effort: That proportion of the total reproductive
effort invested in rearing offspring.
Mating effort: That proportion allotted to acquiring sexual
partners.
Strategies to Maximize Reproductive Success
People are designed to desire things and experience
emotions that increase reproductive success
Parenting effort: proportion of total reproductive effort
invested in rearing offspring
Because female reproductive success hinges more on
parenting effort than mating effort, females have evolved
higher levels of the traits that facilitate it
Mating effort: proportion allotted to acquiring sexual
partners (locating, courting and having sex)
Men expend more mating effort than women
Men’s Mating Efforts/Sexual Coercion
More likely to be sexually coercive when costs are low
(wartime), when women are perceived as adversaries,
when too intoxicated to calculate possible delayed costs,
when men are unconcerned about future relationship
with a particular woman
Sexually coercive men have history of uncommitted sexual
relationships and greater difference for partner variety
Sexual preference: a woman of a fertile age; attractiveness;
woman early to late twenties; prototypical hip to waist
ratios
All geared toward female reproductive capability
Sex in Relation to Crime
‘Young-male’ syndrome of competitiveness with ultimate goal
being reproductively successful
to compete must be young, risk-taking and often violent
Crime decreases with age as does testosterone
Testosterone levels are very high during young age
Crimes of violence committed by males typically against other
males
Homicide often committed by young men of poor socioeconomic
status resulting from verbal altercations
Demonstrates that crime is fundamentally related to inter-male
competition that has ultimate roots in ‘reproductive rivalry’
Risk-Taking and Homicide
High mating effort is correlated with risk taking and antisocial
behaviors in both genders
Early sexual intercourse in boys and girls
Risk-taking is one of best predictors of adolescent pregnancy
High mating effort and antisocial behavior characterize adolescence
Homicides occur as result of altercations arising from arguments,
insults, jostling, rivalries, cursing, etc.
Man’s reputation depends largely on ability to maintain a credible threat of
violence
Homicide perpetrators are responding to perceived reputational or status threats
e.g., duels often led to status enhancement among prominent men in America;
tribesmen – “a man without valor is a worthless man, a man who has not
killed”
Kinship & Crime
Two predictions concerning perceived crime severity:
Crimes are more serious:
To the degree that the victim of any crime is genetically
related to the perpetrator
Heterosexual sexual coercion when there is a close genetic
relationship between the victim and perpetrator
e.g., murder among blood relatives is relatively rare
across societies and historical eras, particularly given
the opportunity for such murders
Major Critiques of Evolutionary
Psychology
Determinism – evolution not useful because of its
determinist nature
Can not change what happened in ancestral environment, so
how can we use theory about past to solve current
problems?
Ignores environmental factors since it relies on theory that
everything is in the genes and genes are immutable
Naturalistic fallacy: legitimizes aggression and violence
along with myriad of social injustices…e.g., views
females as needy competitors for male attention
Biosocial Perspectives on Criminality
Theory
Summarizing Biosocial Perspectives and Theories
Key Concepts
Strengths
Weaknesses
Behavior
genetics
perspective
Genes affect behavior in
interaction with environmental
influences. Heritability
estimates the relative
contribution of genetic and
environmental factor traits
affecting criminality. All
individual traits are at least
modestly influenced by genes.
Looks at both the genetic
and environmental risk
factors for criminal
behavior Understanding
genetic contributions also
identifies the
complementary
contributions of
environmental factors.
Requires twin samples
of twins and/or
adoptees, which are
difficult to come by.
While general
environmental factors
are identified,
behavior genetics does
not specify what they
are.
Evolutionary
psychology
perspective
Human behavior is rooted in
evolutionary history. Natural
selection has favored
victimizing tendencies in
humans, especially males.
These tendencies arose to
facilitate mating effort but
are useful in pursuing criminal
behavior as well. Criminals
emphasize mating effort over
parenting effort more than
males in general.
Ties criminology to
evolutionary biology.
Mating effort helps to
explain why males are more
criminal than females and
why criminals tend to be
more sexually promiscuous
than persons in general.
Emphasizes that crime is
biologically “normal”
(although regrettable)
rather than pathological.
Gives some the
impression that
because crime is
considered “normal,” it
is justified or excused.
Makes assumptions
about human nature
that may or may not be
true. While recognizing
that culture is
important, it tends to
ignore it.
Theory
Summarizing Biosocial Perspectives and Theories
Key Concepts
Strengths
Whatever its origin, all stimuli
are channeled through the brain
before given expression in
behavior. The development of
the brain is strongly influenced
by early environmental
experiences, especially those
involving nurturance and
attachment.
Shows how environmental
experiences are physically
“captured” by the brain.
Emphasizes the importance of
nurturing for optimal
development of the brain. Uses
sophisticated technology and
provides “harder” evidence.
High cost of neuroimaging
studies is a drawback.
Very small samples of
known criminals are often
used, thus limiting
generalizations. Linking
specific brain areas to
specific behaviors is
problematic.
Reward
dominance
theory
Behavioral activating system
(BAS) and behavioral inhibiting
system (BIS) are dopamine and
serotonin driven, respectively.
Among criminals, the BAS tends
to be dominant over the BIS.
This BIS/BAS imbalance can
lead to addiction to many
things, including crime.
Explains why low serotonin is
related to offending (low
serotonin = low self-control).
Explains why criminality is
persistent in some offenders
because they develop a taste
for the “thrill of it all.”
The neurological
underpinnings of the BAS
and BIS have been
difficult to precisely
identify. Studies difficult
and expensive to conduct.
Prefrontal
dysfunction
theory
Frontal lobes control long-term
planning and temper emotions
and their expressions. Criminals
have frontal lobes that fail to
function as they do in most
people, especially in terms of
inhibiting actions that harm
others.
Explains why moral reasoning is
inversely related to
involvement in persistent
criminality. Explains why
criminality has been linked to
frontal lobe damage and to
abnormal brainwaves.
Neuroscience
perspective
Weaknesses
Dysfunction of the
prefrontal lobes remains
difficult to precisely
measure, even with fMRI
scans. Same sampling
difficulties noted for the
neurosciences in general.
Minor Physical Anomalies (MPAs)
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related to disruption in prenatal environment
often not noticeable
some research relates MPAs to neurodevelopmental disorders –
schizophrenia, autism
some correlation w/ temperamental & behavioral attributes in
children (ADHD, learning disabilities, aggressiveness,
clumsiness)
High # MPAs found in active, aggressive & impulsive school
children (conduct disorder)
Overall, disruptions in normal development of nervous system
may render individual at some risk to engage in violent behavior
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum
Disorder (FASD)
FASD is the range of effects (i.e., physical,
mental, behavioral, and learning disabilities)
that can occur in an individual whose mother
drank alcohol during pregnancy.
Consequences
FASD can cause mental retardation, facial
deformities, stunted physical and emotional
development, behavioral problems, memory
and attention deficits, impulsiveness, an
inability to reason from cause to effect; a
failure to comprehend the concept of time;
and an inability to tell reality from fantasy.
Secondary disabilities develop over time
because of problems adapting to the
environment.
Epidemiology of FASD
Health Canada Estimates that 1 to 2 per 1000
children born with FAS in Canada
Estimated incidence of partial FAS and ARND
(Alcohol Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder) is
3-5 times greater than FAS.
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
(with or without confirmation
of maternal drinking)
Alcohol Related Birth
Defects (ARBD)
Partial Fetal Alcohol
Syndrome
Alcohol Related
Neurodevelopmental
Disorder (ARND)
According to Health Canada (2002),
during any given week in Canada…
10,000 babies are born, of these:
3 babies are born with Muscular Dystrophy
4 babies are born with HIV infection
8 babies are born with Spina Bifida
14.2 babies are born with Down Syndrome
20 are born with Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
100 are born with ARND
FAS Community Resource Center
Specific diagnoses
Alcohol + Brain = Alcohol Related
Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND)
Alcohol + Brain + some facial features = partial
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (pFAS)
Alcohol + Brain + facial features + growth
deficiency = Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Alcohol + Brain + physical/facial criteria +
growth deficiency = Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Growth Deficiency
Distinctive Facial Features
Short eye opening
Long flat Philtrum (thin
upper lip)
Flat cheek bones
Flat bridge of nose
Prenatal and/or postnatal
Length vs. weight
Brain Dysfunction
Small head
Behavioral problems
Intellectual/learning problems
speech/language delays
Developmental delays
Other neurological abnormalities
memory, seizures
A baby with FAS; lifetime medical and welfare costs are calculated at $5 million.
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Physical abnormalities are visible in
children with FAS, though not in some
children with Partial FAS or ANRD.
Generally, children with FAS have a
smaller head circumference and low birth
weight, and they may fail to thrive. Their
facial features are distinctive and
diagnostically significant, in that they are
a sign of brain damage, although there
may be brain damage without the visible
facial effects.
Dr. Sterling Clarren, one of the world's
leading FASD researchers, of the
University of Washington in Seattle, told
a conference in 2002, “I have never
seen anybody with this whole face who
doesn't have some brain damage. In fact
in studies, as the face is more FAS-like,
the brain is more likely to be abnormal.
The only face that you would want to
counsel people or predict the future
about is the full FAS face. But the risk of
brain damage increases as the eyes get
smaller, as the philtrum gets flatter, and
the lip gets thinner. The risk goes up but
not the diagnosis.”
Facies in Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Discriminating Features
Associated Features
Epicanthal folds
Short palprebral fissure
Low nasal bridge
Minor ear anomalies
Indistinct philtrum
Thin upper lip
Micrognathia
In the young child
Infant Brains
The regions of the brain that can be most affected by
prenatal alcohol exposure in terms of ability to function
include:
Corpus Callosum - passes information from the left brain
(logic/language) to the right brain (creativity/ feelings) and
vice versa. Smaller, almost nonexistent in exposed brains.
Hippocampus - plays a fundamental role in memory.
Hypothalamus - controls appetite, emotions, temperature,
and pain sensation
Cerebellum - controls coordination and movement, behaviour
and memory.
The Corpus Callosum
Connects right and left
sides to allow
communication between
the hemispheres
Regions of the Brain impacted
Basal Ganglia affects spatial memory and behaviours like
perseveration and the inability to switch modes, work
toward goals, predict behavioural outcomes, and the
perception of time.
Frontal Lobes controls impulses and judgment. The most
noteworthy damage to the brain probably occurs in the
prefrontal cortex, which controls what are called the
Executive Functions.
Executive functions of the prefrontal cortex:
Effects of alcohol exposure on behaviours
related to executive functions:
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A) inhibition
B) problem solving
C) sexual urges
D) planning
E) time perception
F) internal ordering
G) working memory
H) self-monitoring
I) verbal self-regulation
J) motor control
K) regulation of emotion
L) motivation
M) judgment
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A) socially inappropriate behavior, as if inebriated
B) inability to figure out solutions spontaneously
C) inability to control sexual impulse, esp. in social
situations
D) inability to apply consequences from past
actions
E) difficulty with abstract concepts of time and
money
F) like files out of order, difficulty processing
information
G) problems with storing and retrieving information
H) needs frequent cues, requires “policing” by
others
I) needs to talk to self out loud, needs feedback
J) fine motor skills more affected than gross
motor
K) moody “roller coaster” emotions, exaggerated
L) apparent lack of remorse, needs external
motivators
M) inability to weigh pros and cons when making
decisions
Domains of Brian Dysfunction
Cognitive
Executive Functioning/Abstract Reasoning
Memory
Communication
Neurodevelopmental Disabilities
Associated with FASD: ALARM
Adaptive Skills
Language
Attention
Reasoning
Memory
Adaptive Behavior
Behavior that is effective in meeting the natural
and social demands of one’s environment
- able to function independently
- satisfactorily meet the cultural demands of
personal and social responsibility
Acquired Skill
Can tie a double bow
shoelace
Knows emergency phone
number
Uses phone without
assistance
Can count change to a
dollar
Adaptive Behavior
Reties untied lace before
stepping on the escalator
Recognizes emergency
Doesn’t make unauthorized
calls
Understands the value of
items.
Adaptive Learning
Typical
FASD youth
Sustains attention in individual and
group activity
Learns to delay gratification
Flexibility
Able to end activities to start a new
ones
Learns incidentally
Generalize from experience
Takes others perspectives
Handles stress of day to day living
Easily distracted/short attention span;
fatigues easily
Delayed rewards not effective
Perseverates/Rigid
Difficulty with transitions and new
routines
Weak general information
Repeats same mistake
Egocentric
Poor coping skills
Skill Equivalent: Actual Age 18
Living skills
Social skills
Reading (decoding) ability
Physical maturity
Emotional maturity
Money, time concepts
Comprehension of language
Expressive language
Implications for CJS
Deficits: Language
Slow to process language (concrete and literal) and may
not understand the equivalence of words
Acquiescence
Yield to leading questions
Poorer reading comprehension, math and verbal reasoning
Implications for CJS
Deficits: Attention and Reasoning
Unable to anticipate consequences/learn from experience
(connection between cause and effect?)
Learns exception rather than the rule
Difficulty generalizing
Easily led; victimized
Implications for CJS
Deficits: Memory
Short and long term deficits
Confabulation
Problems of sequencing
False Confession
Desire to please people in authority
Secondary Disabilities of FASD
Employment/joblessness (70-85%)
Homelessness (Dependency Living 85%)
Trouble with the law (52-68%)
Confinement (43-55%)
Early school drop-out (53-69%)
Mental health concerns (90+%)
Inappropriate Sexual Behavior (43-52%)
Unplanned pregnancies, parenting problems
Sex Trade, HIV risk, Premature death
Alcohol and drug issues (40%)
Personal Safety Concerns
Does unpredictable or dangerous things
Easily approached by strangers
Public transportation?
Safe sex?
Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders among
those with FASD
Prevalence of Mental Health Disorders
among those with FASD
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
ADD
Depression
Hallucinations
6-11 12-20 21-52
years years years
Inappropriate Sexual Behavior
Prevalence is doubled for those who have been
victims of sexual abuse (65% vs. 35%)
Females are more likely to be sent to therapy
Males are more likely to be sent to jail
FASD and Youth Correctional
Involvement: 1995-1996 Study in BC
FASD Diagnoses Among 287 Remanded Youth =
67 = 23.3% (3 full FAS; 64 FAE).
IQ’s much lower
58% of controls Average vs. 32% of FASD;
16.4% Low Average vs. 32.8% of FASD;
9% Borderline vs. 18% for FASD.
Current Family/Living Situation
Caregiver
Control (%)
FASD (%)
Bio M & F
10.4
0
Bio M
38.8
20.9
Bio F
1.5
3.0
Adopted M/F
1.5
4.5
Foster/Group Home
38.8
46.3
Friend
1.5
7.5
Street
0
4.5
History of Abuse in Study
Abuse
Control (%)
FASD (%)
Physical
44.7
61.2
Sexual
23.9
35.8
Emotional
23.9
46.3
Any
58.2
73.1
FASD and the Criminal Justice System
Disproportionately large number of FASD
youth/adults come into contact with the CJS.
FASD neurological damage may result in an
increased susceptibility to criminal activity and
victimization due to poor judgment,
impulsiveness, inability to anticipate
consequences and inability to alter behaviour
as a result of those consequences.
FASD and the CJS
Individuals with FASD are disadvantaged due to their
communication, memory, and reasoning disabilities.
May not understand their fundamental legal rights.
People with disabilities, including mental handicap, are
accountable for their actions.
FASD is a mitigating factor in sentencing and disposition.
FASD and dangerousness. Disability…but still dangerous.