Transcript Wireless Communications and Networks

Antennas and Propagation
From Stallings – Wireless
Communications and Networks
Introduction
• An antenna is an electrical conductor or
system of conductors
– Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy
into space
– Reception - collects electromagnetic energy
from space
• In two-way communication, the same
antenna can be used for transmission and
reception
Radiation Patterns
• Radiation pattern
– Graphical representation of radiation properties of an
antenna
– Depicted as two-dimensional cross section
• Beam width (or half-power beam width)
– Measure of directivity of antenna
• Reception pattern
– Receiving antenna’s equivalent to radiation pattern
Types of Antennas
• Isotropic antenna (idealized)
– Radiates power equally in all directions
• Dipole antennas
– Half-wave dipole antenna (or Hertz antenna)
– Quarter-wave vertical antenna (or Marconi
antenna)
• Parabolic Reflective Antenna
Antenna Gain
• Antenna gain
– Power output, in a particular direction,
compared to that produced in any direction by a
perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic
antenna)
• Effective area
– Related to physical size and shape of antenna
Antenna Gain
• Relationship between antenna gain and effective
2
area
4A 4f A
G
•
•
•
•
•
2
e

G = antenna gain
Ae = effective area
f = carrier frequency
c = speed of light (» 3 ´ 108 m/s)
 = carrier wavelength
e
c2
Propagation Modes
• Ground-wave propagation
• Sky-wave propagation
• Line-of-sight propagation
Ground Wave Propagation
Ground Wave Propagation
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•
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•
Follows contour of the earth
Can Propagate considerable distances
Frequencies up to 2 MHz
Example
– AM radio
Sky Wave Propagation
Sky Wave Propagation
• Signal reflected from ionized layer of atmosphere
back down to earth
• Signal can travel a number of hops, back and forth
between ionosphere and earth’s surface
• Reflection effect caused by refraction
• Examples
– Amateur radio
– CB radio
Line-of-Sight Propagation
Line-of-Sight Propagation
• Transmitting and receiving antennas must be
within line of sight
– Satellite communication – signal above 30 MHz not
reflected by ionosphere
– Ground communication – antennas within effective line
of site due to refraction
• Refraction – bending of microwaves by the
atmosphere
– Velocity of electromagnetic wave is a function of the
density of the medium
– When wave changes medium, speed changes
– Wave bends at the boundary between mediums
Line-of-Sight Equations
• Optical line of sight
d  3.57 h
• Effective, or radio, line of sight
d  3.57 h
• d = distance between antenna and horizon (km)
• h = antenna height (m)
• K = adjustment factor to account for refraction,
rule of thumb K = 4/3
Line-of-Sight Equations
• Maximum distance between two antennas
for LOS propagation:

3.57 h1  h2
• h1 = height of antenna one
• h2 = height of antenna two

LOS Wireless Transmission
Impairments
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•
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•
•
•
•
Attenuation and attenuation distortion
Free space loss
Noise
Atmospheric absorption
Multipath
Refraction
Thermal noise
Attenuation
• Strength of signal falls off with distance over
transmission medium
• Attenuation factors for unguided media:
– Received signal must have sufficient strength so that
circuitry in the receiver can interpret the signal
– Signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than
noise to be received without error
– Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing
distortion
Free Space Loss
• Free space loss, ideal isotropic antenna

Pt 4d 
4fd 


2
2
Pr

c
2
2
• Pt = signal power at transmitting antenna
• Pr = signal power at receiving antenna
•  = carrier wavelength
• d = propagation distance between antennas
• c = speed of light (» 3 ´ 10 8 m/s)
where d and  are in the same units (e.g., meters)
Free Space Loss
• Free space loss equation can be recast:
Pt
 4d 
LdB  10 log  20 log 

Pr
  
 20 log    20 log d   21.98 dB
 4fd 
 20 log 
  20 log  f   20 log d   147.56 dB
 c 
Free Space Loss
• Free space loss accounting for gain of other
antennas


Pt 4  d 
d 
cd 



2
2
Pr
Gr Gt 
Ar At
f Ar At
2
•
•
•
•
2
2
Gt = gain of transmitting antenna
Gr = gain of receiving antenna
At = effective area of transmitting antenna
Ar = effective area of receiving antenna
2
Free Space Loss
• Free space loss accounting for gain of other
antennas can be recast as
LdB  20 log    20 log d   10 log  At Ar 
 20 log  f   20 log d   10 log  At Ar   169.54dB
Categories of Noise
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Thermal Noise
Intermodulation noise
Crosstalk
Impulse Noise
Thermal Noise
• Thermal noise due to agitation of electrons
• Present in all electronic devices and
transmission media
• Cannot be eliminated
• Function of temperature
• Particularly significant for satellite
communication
Thermal Noise
• Amount of thermal noise to be found in a
bandwidth of 1Hz in any device or
conductor is:
N 0  kT W/Hz 
• N0 = noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of
bandwidth
• k = Boltzmann's constant = 1.3803 ´ 10-23 J/K
• T = temperature, in kelvins (absolute temperature)
Thermal Noise
• Noise is assumed to be independent of frequency
• Thermal noise present in a bandwidth of B Hertz
(in watts):
N  kTB
or, in decibel-watts
N  10 log k  10 log T  10 log B
 228.6 dBW  10 log T  10 log B
Noise Terminology
• Intermodulation noise – occurs if signals with
different frequencies share the same medium
– Interference caused by a signal produced at a frequency
that is the sum or difference of original frequencies
• Crosstalk – unwanted coupling between signal
paths
• Impulse noise – irregular pulses or noise spikes
– Short duration and of relatively high amplitude
– Caused by external electromagnetic disturbances, or
faults and flaws in the communications system
Expression Eb/N0
• Ratio of signal energy per bit to noise power
density per Hertz
Eb S / R
S


N0
N0
kTR
• The bit error rate for digital data is a function of
Eb/N0
– Given a value for Eb/N0 to achieve a desired error rate,
parameters of this formula can be selected
– As bit rate R increases, transmitted signal power must
increase to maintain required Eb/N0
Other Impairments
• Atmospheric absorption – water vapor and
oxygen contribute to attenuation
• Multipath – obstacles reflect signals so that
multiple copies with varying delays are
received
• Refraction – bending of radio waves as they
propagate through the atmosphere
Multipath Propagation
Multipath Propagation
• Reflection - occurs when signal encounters a
surface that is large relative to the wavelength of
the signal
• Diffraction - occurs at the edge of an impenetrable
body that is large compared to wavelength of radio
wave
• Scattering – occurs when incoming signal hits an
object whose size in the order of the wavelength
of the signal or less
The Effects of Multipath
Propagation
• Multiple copies of a signal may arrive at
different phases
– If phases add destructively, the signal level
relative to noise declines, making detection
more difficult
• Intersymbol interference (ISI)
– One or more delayed copies of a pulse may
arrive at the same time as the primary pulse for
a subsequent bit
Types of Fading
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Fast fading
Slow fading
Flat fading
Selective fading
Rayleigh fading
Rician fading
Error Compensation Mechanisms
• Forward error correction
• Adaptive equalization
• Diversity techniques
Forward Error Correction
• Transmitter adds error-correcting code to data
block
– Code is a function of the data bits
• Receiver calculates error-correcting code from
incoming data bits
– If calculated code matches incoming code, no error
occurred
– If error-correcting codes don’t match, receiver attempts
to determine bits in error and correct
Adaptive Equalization
• Can be applied to transmissions that carry analog
or digital information
– Analog voice or video
– Digital data, digitized voice or video
• Used to combat intersymbol interference
• Involves gathering dispersed symbol energy back
into its original time interval
• Techniques
– Lumped analog circuits
– Sophisticated digital signal processing algorithms
Diversity Techniques
• Diversity is based on the fact that individual
channels experience independent fading events
• Space diversity – techniques involving physical
transmission path
• Frequency diversity – techniques where the signal
is spread out over a larger frequency bandwidth or
carried on multiple frequency carriers
• Time diversity – techniques aimed at spreading the
data out over time
Signal Encoding Techniques
Stallings – Wireless Communications
and Networks Chapter 6
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
• Digital data, digital signal
– Equipment less complex and expensive than
digital-to-analog modulation equipment
• Analog data, digital signal
– Permits use of modern digital transmission and
switching equipment
Reasons for Choosing Encoding
Techniques
• Digital data, analog signal
– Some transmission media will only propagate
analog signals
– E.g., optical fiber and unguided media
• Analog data, analog signal
– Analog data in electrical form can be
transmitted easily and cheaply
– Done with voice transmission over voice-grade
lines
Signal Encoding Criteria
• What determines how successful a receiver will be
in interpreting an incoming signal?
– Signal-to-noise ratio
– Data rate
– Bandwidth
• An increase in data rate increases bit error rate
• An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate
• An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in
data rate
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
• Signal spectrum
– With lack of high-frequency components, less
bandwidth required
– With no dc component, ac coupling via transformer
possible
– Transfer function of a channel is worse near band edges
• Clocking
– Ease of determining beginning and end of each bit
position
Factors Used to Compare
Encoding Schemes
• Signal interference and noise immunity
– Performance in the presence of noise
• Cost and complexity
– The higher the signal rate to achieve a given data rate,
the greater the cost
Basic Encoding Techniques
• Digital data to analog signal
– Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
• Amplitude difference of carrier frequency
– Frequency-shift keying (FSK)
• Frequency difference near carrier frequency
– Phase-shift keying (PSK)
• Phase of carrier signal shifted
Basic Encoding Techniques
Amplitude-Shift Keying
• One binary digit represented by presence of
carrier, at constant amplitude
• Other binary digit represented by absence of
carrier

binary 1
 A cos2f ct 
s t   
binary 0
0


• where the carrier signal is Acos(2πfct)
Amplitude-Shift Keying
•
•
•
•
Susceptible to sudden gain changes
Inefficient modulation technique
On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200 bps
Used to transmit digital data over optical
fiber
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
• Two binary digits represented by two different
frequencies near the carrier frequency

 A cos2f1t 
s t   

 A cos2f 2t 
binary 1
binary 0
• where f1 and f2 are offset from carrier frequency fc by equal but
opposite amounts
Binary Frequency-Shift Keying
(BFSK)
• Less susceptible to error than ASK
• On voice-grade lines, used up to 1200bps
• Used for high-frequency (3 to 30 MHz)
radio transmission
• Can be used at higher frequencies on LANs
that use coaxial cable
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
• More than two frequencies are used
• More bandwidth efficient but more susceptible to
error
si t   A cos 2f i t 1  i  M
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f i = f c + (2i – 1 – M)f d
f c = the carrier frequency
f d = the difference frequency
M = number of different signal elements = 2 L
L = number of bits per signal element
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
•
To match data rate of input bit stream,
each output signal element is held for:
Ts=LT seconds
•
•
where T is the bit period (data rate = 1/T)
So, one signal element encodes L bits
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
• Total bandwidth required
2Mfd
• Minimum frequency separation required
2fd=1/Ts
• Therefore, modulator requires a bandwidth
of
Wd=2L/LT=M/Ts
Multiple Frequency-Shift Keying
(MFSK)
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
• Two-level PSK (BPSK)
– Uses two phases to represent binary digits

binary 1
 A cos2f ct 
s t   
 A cos2f c t    binary 0


 A cos2f ct 


 A cos2f c t 
binary 1
binary 0
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
• Differential PSK (DPSK)
– Phase shift with reference to previous bit
• Binary 0 – signal burst of same phase as previous
signal burst
• Binary 1 – signal burst of opposite phase to previous
signal burst
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
• Four-level PSK (QPSK)
– Each element represents
  one bit
 more than
A cos 2f c t  
11
4

3 

A cos 2f c t 

01
4 

3 

00
A cos 2f c t 

4 



10
A cos 2f c t  
4



st   


Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
• Multilevel PSK
– Using multiple phase angles with each angle
having more than one amplitude, multiple signals
elements can be achieved
R
R
D 
L log 2 M
•
•
•
•
D = modulation rate, baud
R = data rate, bps
M = number of different signal elements = 2L
L = number of bits per signal element
Performance
• Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
– ASK, PSK
– FSK
BT=(1+r)R
BT=2DF+(1+r)R
• R = bit rate
• 0 < r < 1; related to how signal is filtered
• DF = f2-fc=fc-f1
Performance
• Bandwidth of modulated signal (BT)
 1 r 
1 r 


B

R

R


T


– MPSK
 L 
 log 2 M 
– MFSK
 1  r M 
 R
BT  
 log 2 M 
• L = number of bits encoded per signal element
• M = number of different signal elements
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
• QAM is a combination of ASK and PSK
– Two different signals sent simultaneously on
the same carrier frequency
st   d1 t cos 2f ct  d 2 t sin 2f ct
Quadrature Amplitude
Modulation
Reasons for Growth of Digital
Techniques
• Growth in popularity of digital techniques
for sending analog data
– Repeaters are used instead of amplifiers
• No additive noise
– TDM is used instead of FDM
• No intermodulation noise
– Conversion to digital signaling allows use of
more efficient digital switching techniques
Spread Spectrum
Stallings Wireless Chapter 7
Spread Spectrum
• Input is fed into a channel encoder
– Produces analog signal with narrow bandwidth
• Signal is further modulated using sequence of
digits
– Spreading code or spreading sequence
– Generated by pseudonoise, or pseudo-random number
generator
• Effect of modulation is to increase bandwidth of
signal to be transmitted
Spread Spectrum
• On receiving end, digit sequence is used to
demodulate the spread spectrum signal
• Signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover
data
Spread Spectrum
Spread Spectrum
• What can be gained from apparent waste of
spectrum?
– Immunity from various kinds of noise and
multipath distortion
– Can be used for hiding and encrypting signals
– Several users can independently use the same
higher bandwidth with very little interference
Frequency Hopped Spread
Spectrum (FHSS)
• Signal is broadcast over seemingly random series
of radio frequencies
– A number of channels allocated for the FH signal
– Width of each channel corresponds to bandwidth of
input signal
• Signal hops from frequency to frequency at fixed
intervals
– Transmitter operates in one channel at a time
– Bits are transmitted using some encoding scheme
– At each successive interval, a new carrier frequency is
selected
Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum
• Channel sequence dictated by spreading code
• Receiver, hopping between frequencies in
synchronization with transmitter, picks up
message
• Advantages
– Eavesdroppers hear only unintelligible blips
– Attempts to jam signal on one frequency succeed only
at knocking out a few bits
Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum
FHSS Using MFSK
• MFSK signal is translated to a new frequency
every Tc seconds by modulating the MFSK signal
with the FHSS carrier signal
• For data rate of R:
– duration of a bit: T = 1/R seconds
– duration of signal element: Ts = LT seconds
• Tc  Ts - slow-frequency-hop spread spectrum
• Tc < Ts - fast-frequency-hop spread spectrum
FHSS Performance
Considerations
• Large number of frequencies used
• Results in a system that is quite resistant to
jamming
– Jammer must jam all frequencies
– With fixed power, this reduces the jamming
power in any one frequency band
Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
• Each bit in original signal is represented by
multiple bits in the transmitted signal
• Spreading code spreads signal across a wider
frequency band
– Spread is in direct proportion to number of bits used
• One technique combines digital information
stream with the spreading code bit stream using
exclusive-OR (Figure 7.6)
Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum (DSSS)
DSSS Using BPSK
• Multiply BPSK signal,
sd(t) = A d(t) cos(2 fct)
by c(t) [takes values +1, -1] to get
s(t) = A d(t)c(t) cos(2 fct)
• A = amplitude of signal
• fc = carrier frequency
• d(t) = discrete function [+1, -1]
• At receiver, incoming signal multiplied by c(t)
– Since, c(t) x c(t) = 1, incoming signal is recovered
DSSS Using BPSK
Code-Division Multiple Access
(CDMA)
• Basic Principles of CDMA
– D = rate of data signal
– Break each bit into k chips
• Chips are a user-specific fixed pattern
– Chip data rate of new channel = kD
CDMA Example
• If k=6 and code is a sequence of 1s and -1s
– For a ‘1’ bit, A sends code as chip pattern
• <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>
– For a ‘0’ bit, A sends complement of code
• <-c1, -c2, -c3, -c4, -c5, -c6>
• Receiver knows sender’s code and performs
electronic decode function
Su d   d1 c1  d 2  c2  d 3  c3  d 4  c4  d 5  c5  d 6  c6
• <d1, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6> = received chip pattern
• <c1, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6> = sender’s code
CDMA Example
• User A code = <1, –1, –1, 1, –1, 1>
– To send a 1 bit = <1, –1, –1, 1, –1, 1>
– To send a 0 bit = <–1, 1, 1, –1, 1, –1>
• User B code = <1, 1, –1, – 1, 1, 1>
– To send a 1 bit = <1, 1, –1, –1, 1, 1>
• Receiver receiving with A’s code
– (A’s code) x (received chip pattern)
• User A ‘1’ bit: 6 -> 1
• User A ‘0’ bit: -6 -> 0
• User B ‘1’ bit: 0 -> unwanted signal ignored
CDMA for Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum
Categories of Spreading
Sequences
• Spreading Sequence Categories
– PN sequences
– Orthogonal codes
• For FHSS systems
– PN sequences most common
• For DSSS systems not employing CDMA
– PN sequences most common
• For DSSS CDMA systems
– PN sequences
– Orthogonal codes
PN Sequences
• PN generator produces periodic sequence that
appears to be random
• PN Sequences
– Generated by an algorithm using initial seed
– Sequence isn’t statistically random but will pass many
test of randomness
– Sequences referred to as pseudorandom numbers or
pseudonoise sequences
– Unless algorithm and seed are known, the sequence is
impractical to predict
Important PN Properties
• Randomness
– Uniform distribution
• Balance property
• Run property
– Independence
– Correlation property
• Unpredictability
Linear Feedback Shift Register
Implementation
Typical Multiple Spreading
Approach
• Spread data rate by an orthogonal code
(channelization code)
– Provides mutual orthogonality among all users
in the same cell
• Further spread result by a PN sequence
(scrambling code)
– Provides mutual randomness (low cross
correlation) between users in different cells