Chapter 6 - Cloudfront.net
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Nutritional Considerations
Nutrition
Diet influences virtually every aspect of sports
participation.
Performance
Recovery from training and competition
And to some extent, likelihood of injury
Knowledge of Nutrition
Coaches and athletes may be familiar with the food
groups but often lack adequate nutrition information
and incorporate unfounded nutritional practices into
training programs.
Athletes may be receiving nutritional education from
other sources.
Parents, TV commercials, magazines
Certified athletic trainers and strength &
conditioning coaches are most knowledgeable about
nutrition.
Eating for Sport Performance
Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics indicates that
eating properly will:
help you train longer and at a higher intensity
delay the onset of fatigue
promote recovery
help your body adapt to workouts
improve body composition and strength
enhance concentration
help maintain healthy immune function
reduce the chance of injury
reduce the risk of heat cramps and stomach aches.
Overview of Nutrients
Macronutrients
Carbohydrates
Fats (Lipids)
Protein
Micronutrients
Vitamins
Minerals
Water
Caloric Intake (Rest + Activity)
Caloric intake should be based the body weight goal.
Total caloric intake should be determined by
calculating the basal metabolic rate (BMR) and the
energy needs for activity.
The metabolic qualities of the activity should be
considered when calculating the need for each
energy-producing nutrient (carbohydrates, fats,
proteins).
Calculating Goal Weight
Based on ideal body fat percentages
10-22% Males
20-32% Females
To calculate goal weight:
Current % body fat – Desired % body fat =
Nonessential body fat %
Current body weight X Nonessential body fat %
(decimal form) = Nonessential fat (lbs)
Current body weight – Nonessential fat (lbs) =
Ideal body weight (lbs)
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
The amount of energy needed to sustain functioning at rest.
Female BMR = 655.1 + (9.6 X weight [kg]) + (1.9 X height
[cm]) – (4.7 X age [yrs])
Male BMR = 66.5 + (13.8 X weight [kg]) + (5 X height [cm])
– (6.8 X age [yrs])
Add daily activity to find amount of energy expended daily
Sedentary - 20-40% of BMR
Light Activity - 55-65%
Moderate Activity – 70-75%
Heavy Activity – 80-100%
Sport participation > 200%
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates (CHO) provide energy for high-intensity
exercise
Experts recommend 60% to 70% of daily calories be
supplied by CHO.
Each gram of CHO provides 4 kilocalories.
Average person stores approximately 1500 to 2000 kcals of
CHO, the majority of which is in the form of muscle and
liver glycogen. Small portion available as blood glucose.
CHO are now classified on how fast they are oxidized.
Known as the Glycemic Index.
Carbohydrates
CHO derived from plant sources, primarily grains, seeds, fruits, and
vegetables.
Simple CHO – monosaccharides
Sugars such as fructose, glucose, galactose
Typically stimulate insulin release and blood glucose
fluctuations.
Foods containing are high caloric and often referred to as empty
calories.
Complex CHO – polysaccharides
Whole-grain cereals & breads, vegetables, and fruits.
Dietary fiber (indigestible CHO) essential for digestion.
Carbohydrates
Simple and complex CHO are suitable to describe foods,
but these do not represent the way they are hydrolyzed
and absorbed by the body. (Table 6.1)
Low Glycemic Index CHO
Cause a steadier rise and decline in blood glucose and insulin.
Best for weight management and overall diet.
High Glycemic Index CHO
Typically result in a large and rapid rise in blood glucose and
insulin, followed by a rapid decrease in blood glucose. Best for
refueling after event.
Carbohydrate Loading
Carbohydrate loading can benefit athletes involved in
aerobic sports, especially activities lasting 60 minutes or
more.
Properly executed regimen of CHO loading can boost the
level of stored glycogen.
1 week prior to the competition and includes a gradual
tapering of physical activity accompanied with a slight
increase in CHO ingestion.
Fats (Lipids)
Fats are needed for energy, insulation, and protection of
organs.
Fatty acids and glycerol make up fats.
Fatty acids: Saturated and Unsaturated
Experts recommend that fats compose 30% or less of
total calories. 10% saturated
Each gram of fat supplies 9 kilocalories.
Fats
Saturated - all of the available bonding sites on the fatty
acid molecule are occupied by a hydrogen atom. Derived
from animal sources (i.e., beef, pork, poultry, and dairy
products). Generally solid at room temperature.
Unsaturated fats are structured in such a way as to prevent
all of the available bonding sites from being occupied by a
hydrogen atom. Plant based. Generally liquid at room
temperature.
Proteins
Proteins are needed for tissue construction, enzyme
reactions, and energy during prolonged exercise.
Experts recommend that proteins compose 10-15%.
Each gram of protein supplies 4 kilocalories.
Proteins are composed of amino acids
20 different amino acids are used to make thousands of
proteins.
8 are essential amino acids, which cannot be synthesized
by the body and must be ingested in the diet.
Proteins
Sources include eggs, meats, dairy products, legumes, or
grains.
Athletes who are on vegetarian diets must take care to eat
foods in the correct combination to provide all of the
essential amino acids.
A solution to the problem is for such athletes to include
either eggs (ovolactovegetarian), milk products
(lactovegetarian), or both to ensure adequate supplies of
essential amino acids.
Protein Supplementation
Protein supplementation is not recommended because:
Increase saturated fat in the diet
Overstress the liver and kidneys.
NO scientific evidence that protein supplements enhance
muscles.
During intense training, 1.2-1.8 grams protein/kg body
weight are recommended.
0.83-1.2 g/kg for sedentary or light exerciser
Normal diet provides adequate protein consumption for
intense training.
Vitamins
Vitamins have various functions
Regulate biochemical reactions (energy metabolism and cell and
tissue generation)
Serving as antioxidants that protect cell structure.
Vitamins contain no caloric value and a balanced diet supplies
the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA).
There are water- and fat-soluble types of vitamins.
Water soluble: Vitamins C, B1, B2, B6, B12, niacin, folic acid, biotin,
and pantothenic acid.
Fat soluble: vitamins A, D, E, and K.
Minerals
Minerals are elements needed for various body functions.
Provide structure, help maintain normal heart rhythm, assist
muscle contractility, promote neural conductivity, and regulate
metabolism.
There is no scientific evidence to support taking minerals in
excess of RDA for performance.
But endurance athletes may be at an increased risk of iron or
calcium deficiency
Iron and Calcium RDAs
Iron:10 mg for males and 18-20 mg for females
Calcium: 1500 mg
Vitamins and Minerals
Athletes who do not eat a balanced diet should
be advised to include a vitamin and mineral
supplement.
A convenient method of supplementation
is a daily multivitamin
Megadoses of vitamins/minerals should
be avoided and could result in severe
consequences
Water (H2O)
Water is necessary for human performance, as well as
survival.
Adult water requirement at rest is approx. 2.5 liters daily,
but it can increase to 5–10 liters during heavy exercise,
especially in high temperature and humidity.
Water lost during exercise needs to be replaced to maintain
body’s fluid balance.
A reduction of body weight of 2-5% can impair function.
Current recommendations are for every 1 lb lost due to
sweating, 20-24 oz. of water be consumed.
Nutritional Knowledge: The
Research
Athletes are largely uneducated regarding proper nutrition,
even though they understand the importance of adhering to a
quality diet. (Torres-McGehee et al., 2012)
Sources information come from family members (32%), fellow
athletes (32%), athletic trainers (30%), dietitians (30%), coaches
(28%), and TV, radio, or the Internet (10%) to obtain their
information. (Froiland et al., 2004)
Hilton (2005) reported that 70% of university athletes (n = 345)
are falling short of their daily caloric needs.
Female Athletes
As more women become involved in organized sports,
concerns have been raised regarding their special nutritional
considerations.
Especially those involved in aesthetic sports that place an
emphasis on being lean, such as gymnastics, diving, and
dancing.
Greenleaf and colleagues (2009) determined that 54% of college
athletes were dissatisfied with their current weight.
Clinical disordered eating: 47% in lean sports; 20% in “nonlean” sports
Endurance Sports
Athletic energy deficit - athletes not consuming enough
calories to match their output. A new concern emerging in
athletics.
Athletes with athletic energy deficit will be unable to support
vital body functions including bone growth.
With insufficient energy post exercise repair is inhibited,
hormones affected, amenorrhea and slower/poor bone growth.
Other adverse health-related consequences include:
depression, lethargy, attention deficits, sleep disorders, and
increases in body fat.
Wrestling
Wrestling is one of only a few sports that match
participants on the basis of weight.
Wrestlers often follow unhealthy weight loss procedures
to compete in lighter weight categories.
Rapid weight loss occurs via dehydration.
Dehydration occurs through the use of laxatives and diuretics,
fluid restriction, artificially induced sweating, and starvation.
No definitive proof that such tactics actually present an
advantage.
Wrestling
Short-term effects of repeated bouts of extreme weight
loss include: (Nelson, 1989; Williams, 1992)
Increased blood viscosity
Blood clots
Kidney, liver and pancreas problems
Ulcers
Speculative long-term effects may include interference
with normal growth and development.
Wrestling Minimum Weight
Project (WMWP)
Wisconsin instituted WMWP in 1989. (Oppliger et al., 1995)
Weight loss must be no more than 3 lbs. of weight
loss/week.
A minimum 7% body fat level was established.
Testing of athletes along with nutrition education for
coaches was implemented.
Feedback has been positive from 95% of coaches.
Participation has increased.
Wrestling Rules
The NFSH has developed a national wrestling rule #1-3-1
that states:
“An ideal program would be one where a medical
professional would assist in establishing a minimum weight
through the use of checking body fat and hydration. The
recommended minimum body fat should not be lower than
7%” (NFHS, 2011)
Weight cutting can have physiological effects on
performance. (ACSM; Oppliger et al., 1996, updated in 2010)
ACSM Recommendations for
Wrestling
Education should be provided to coaches and wrestlers.
Rubber suits, steam rooms, hot boxes, saunas, laxatives, and
diuretics should not be used for making weight.
Weigh-ins immediately prior to competition.
Daily weigh-ins need to be scheduled before and after practice.
The body composition assessed prior to the season.
Caloric intake needs to support the normal developmental
needs.
Conclusions
(ACSM, 2009; McArdle et al., 2009)
Athletes do not consume the proper proportions of nutrients
CHO amount depends on the athletes daily expenditure, sport,
gender, and conditions
Protein needs can be met through diet alone
Athletes eat too much “junk food”
Athletes in sports that require lean bodies tend to eat diets with
insufficient calories
Most athletes’ diets are deficient in important minerals, i.e., calcium,
iron, & zinc.
What Can the Coach Do?
Coaches are an important source of nutrition information.
People planning to enter the coaching profession should take at
least one basic college nutrition course.
Attend in-service meetings, professional conferences, or
community education programs in sports nutrition.
Subscribe to professional journals that include nutrition articles.
What Can the Coach Do?
Locate nutrition experts, including dietitians, university
nutrition faculty, or sports medicine staff.
Implement peer-led programs like Athletes Targeting Healthy
Exercise & Nutrition Alternatives (ATHENA). (Eliot et al., 2008)
Have athletes keep a record of their diet that is reviewed
periodically by a person knowledgeable in nutrition.
When working with children, discuss nutritional needs of the
athlete with parents.
General Dietary Guidelines for
Athletes
Tailored to meet individual needs
Nutrition should prepare athletes for: practice,
competition and recovery
Educated to make proper food selection and informed
supplement using interactive resources
Sports, Cardiovascular, and
Wellness Nutrition practice
group (http://www.scandpg.org)
Precompetition Diets
Foods eaten just before a contest will contribute virtually
nothing to performance.
Experts recommend that the typical pregame meal should
be eaten no later than 1 to 4 hours prior to the contest.
(ACSM, 2009)
Eat low-fat, easy-to-digest foods.
Liquid meals increase hydration and are less likely to cause
bloating or “heavy” feeling.
Foods should provide 150 to 300 grams of CHO or 3 to 5
grams/kg of body weight. (McArdle et al., 2009)
Nutrition During Competition
One hour of highly intense exercise can reduce liver
glycogen by 55% and 2 hours can almost completely
deplete both liver and muscle glycogen.
CHO consumption during long-duration exercise (1 to
3 hours at 70% to 80% VO2max ) allows muscle cells to
rely on blood glucose for energy.
Recommended fluid source of CHO is 8 oz. of a 5%
CHO solution consumed every 15-20 min. Especially
for morning workouts.
Nutrition After Competition
Dietary goals are to replace muscle glycogen and ensure
quick recovery.
A carbohydrate intake of approximately 1.0–1.5 g/kg body
mass (0.5–0.7 g/lb) during the first 30 min and again every
2 h for 4–6 h will be adequate to replace glycogen stores.
Timing of CHO ingestion is important as glycogen levels
will replenish faster if the food is consumed within 30
minutes – 1 hour.
Protein consumed after exercise will provide amino acids
for building and repair of muscle tissue.
Nutrition and Injury Recovery
Weight gain is a concern with forced inactivity due to injury.
Athletes who are ill/injured should not reduce total caloric
intake as metabolism may increase as the body repairs itself.
Recommend cross training during recovery.
Runners can ride stationary bikes or run in swimming pools.
Those with infectious illnesses and unable to exercise should
establish a caloric intake based on their BMR until they are
healthy.
Nutrition and Recovery
CHO stimulates insulin/insulin growth factor which helps
tissue building.
Proteins (amino acids) contain the building blocks for
connective tissue and muscle.
Anti-inflammatory foods encouraged: garlic, cocoa, tea,
blueberries, pineapple
Proteolytic enzymes are known to inactivate bradykinins,
reduce viscosity of extracellular fluid(swelling), and help
molecular debridement: cheese, rye, papaya
Free fatty acids contain eicosanoids, which can reduce pain,
cause vasodilation and enhance the immune system: omega 3 &
omega 6 fatty acids
Managing Body Weight
Body weight consists of water, fat, and lean tissue.
Muscle is denser than fat.
In order to maintain weight an athlete’s caloric intake must
equal caloric expenditure.
Consume too many calories per day the excess calories are
converted to fat. Too few, stored fat will be metabolized to
form energy.
Severe caloric restrictions (fasting) result in protein breakdown.
Athletes should only weigh themselves once/week at the same
time of day and after going to the bathroom.
Managing Body Weight
Percentage of body fat = the ratio of fat to lean body weight
Better measurement for weight management and is
commonly referred to as body composition.
Ranges for most active young females are 14-24% and
active young males are 7-17%.
Lowest reference body fat for males is 5% and in females it is
12% (Sammarone Turocy et al., 2011)
NATA position statement “Safe weight loss and
maintenance practices in sport and exercise” (Sammarone
Turocy et al., 2011) is an excellent resource
Minimal Competitive Weight (MCW)
% body fat can be used to accurately calculate an
athlete’s minimal competitive weight so they can
excel during the season.
Sample Equation: [MCW = LBW / % fat desired]
• Determine % fat desired (5%); (1 - % fat
desired = 0.95)
• A 135 lb athlete with 14% body fat = 135 x
0.14 = 18.9 lb fat
• 135 lb – 18.9 (fat weight) = 116.10 lb (LBW)
• MCW = 116.10 / 0.95 = 122 lbs
Supplements and Ergogenic
Aids
Supplements have become very popular with athletes of
all calibers.
Ergogenic Aid: Food/drink that has potential to increase
work output of the person using them
Marketed to make athletes think they will improve their
personal performance and reach their goals faster.
It is important for the consumer to evaluate the marketing
claims, research studies, and safety issues associated with
ergogenic aids. (Manore, Meyer, and Thompson, 2009)
Many pose adverse health risks or are illegal and their use
will result in disqualification or other penalties.
Nutritional Supplements
NATA released two comprehensive position stands
evaluating dietary supplements (Buell et al., 2013)
and anabolic-androgenic steroids (Kersey et al., 2012)
Food first philosophy
Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act
(DSHEA) of 1994
Supplements can be divided into two categories:
Legal and Illegal
Nutritional Supplements
Write how it can increase performance, its adverse
effects, how it is regulated (banned, illegal, legal, dosage,
etc.) and how to get it.
Caffeine
Ephedra
Androstenedione (andro)
Dehydroepiandrosterone
(DHEA)
Creatine
Amino acids
Nitric Oxide
Herbals
Anabolic Steroids
EPO
Amphetamines
Gamma-Hydroxybutyrate
(GHB)
Anabolic-Androgenic Products
Illegal supplements include the following but are mostly
legal products when used in therapeutic doses under
physician or veterinarian's care.
Anabolic steroids – high doses build muscle but have many
adverse effects
Erythropoietin (EPO) - stimulates RBC proliferation,
increased viscosity makes the heart work harder
Amphetamines – stimulants that block fatigue messages to
the brain, associated cardiac problems
Gammahydroxybutyrate (GHB) – deep sleep aid, suggested
HGH is released in this sleep cycle