Transcript The Role of Internal and External Factors on the College Choice of

The Role of Internal and External Factors
Upon the College Choice of Male and
Female Collegiate Student Athletes
2009 Scholarly Conference on College Sport
University of North Carolina
College Sport Research Institute
Howard Bartee, Jr., Ed.D.
April 17, 2009
General Overview
College choice impacts student athletes and their
decision-making when determining how college sports
fit within their short and long-term career goals. It is
the process of decision-making that involves both
internal and external factors in diverse, yet significant,
ways that must be examined. Through the application
of selected college choice models, a more informed
understanding about how this process unfolds in
guiding student athletes toward an important life
decision.
Statement of the Problem
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The general problem of this study was to determine the role
that internal and external factors play upon the college choice
decision making process for male and female collegiate
student athletes.
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Specifically, the study examines relationships that may or may
not exist within internal and external factors.
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External factors related to the psychological, environmental,
educational perspectives as well as internal factors of racial,
social and gender classes are viewed within the context and
components of the college choice model of Hossler and
Gallagher (1987).
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The study further provides implications about how the internal
and external factors influence college choice for future college
student athletes.
Research Questions
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Are there statistically significant differences in the
external factors of psychological, educational, and
environmental perspectives among student
athletes of different demographic backgrounds?
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Are there statistically significant differences in the
internal factors of racial class, social class and
gender class perspectives among student athletes
of different demographic backgrounds?
Research Significance, Limitations, and Delimitations
Research Significance
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The importance of college choice is vital as it prepares student athletes for their individual
futures after graduating from high school.
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This study will provide a realistic picture of what goes into the decision making process of
student athletes as they are trying to make a college choice as compared to college choice
models of previous research.
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By identifying internal and external factors in this study, student athletes, parents, coaches,
and guidance counselors, among others, will be able to better understand the decision making
process of student athletes and their college choice; and how decision making theories
influence the college choice of student athletes.
Research Limitations
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The degree to which subjects respond to and answer their questionnaires.
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Interpretation of the questionnaire might have varied answers among the student athletes that
participate.
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The results of the questionnaire may not be applicable to non-student athletes.
Research Delimitations
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The outcome of this study cannot evaluate the role of college choice in the decision making
process of non-student athletes.
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The outcome of this study cannot evaluate the role of college choice in the decision making
process of foreign student and non-student athletes.
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The outcome of this study cannot be generalized to include student-athletes around the United
States and abroad in regards to their decision making process on college choice.
Highlights from the Literature Review
A. College Choice Models
B. Individual and Group Behavior Perspectives
C. Student Athlete College Choice Models
A. Highlights from the Literature Review:
College Choice Models
Factors that play a role in college choice
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Cabrera (2006) Findings
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Saliency of potential institutions.
Availability of information about college.
Parental characteristics (education, income, etc.).
Student’s early educational/occupational aspirations.
College qualifications.
Hanson and Litten (1982) Findings
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Parental collegiate experiences.
Cost of attendance and financial aid.
Parental encouragement and involvement.
Student’s ability.
Student’s education/occupational aspirations.
Student characteristics.
Personal attributes.
College characteristics.
Public policy.
Search process.
Sending of applications.
High school characteristics.
Environment.
College actions.
College aspirations.
Information gathering.
Enrolling.
Hossler and Gallagher (1987) Findings
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The Predisposition Phase
The Search Process
The Choice Stage
B. Highlights from the Literature Review:
Individual and Group Behavior Perspectives
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Environmental Perspective
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Reward structures related to goal orientation from a competitive standpoint.
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Individuals compare their performance to that of others. Over time, ego goal
orientation is promoted.
Reward structures related to goal orientation from an individualistic standpoint.
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Individuals focus on personal improvement and learning through effort. Over time,
task goal orientation is promoted.
Gill (2000); (Ames, 1984; Nicholls, 1989), Williams (1998), (Ames & Archer, 1988),
Seifriz et al. (1991).
Educational Perspective
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Elementary School Sports and Exercise in Physical Education
Junior High School Participation in Sports and Exercise
High School Sports Participation in Varsity Activities
Sports after High School
Athletics Both College and Intramural
Professional Sport Participation
Recreational Sport Participation
Fullagar (1964); Jacobs, et al (2002); Wigfield et al (1997); Eccles & Midgley (1989);
Flammer et al. (1992); Snyder & Spreitzer (1992); Wankel & Berger (1990).
B. Highlights from the Literature Review:
Individual and Group Behavior Perspectives
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Psychological Perspective
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Motivation
Socialization
Individual Decision-Making
Behavior Modification
Hossler et al (1989); Kotler & Fox (1985); Paulsen (2001); Hossler & Vesper (1990);
McDonough (1997); Stinchcombe (1990).
Racial Class Perspective
The racial class perspective includes various stages of racial inequality in American
history:
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Exclusion of minorities before the Civil War (Sage, 2000).
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Stage of breakthroughs immediately after the Civil War (Sage, 2000).
Segregation beginning in the last two decades of the 19th century (Sage, 2000).
Segregation continuing to the mid-20th century (Sage, 2000).
Integration during the latter 20th century (Sage, 2000).
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B. Highlights from the Literature Review:
Individual and Group Behavior Perspectives
Gender Class Perspective
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The gender class perspective includes three major areas in Title IX, including:
(1) equality of scholarship, Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Sex in Education Programs
and Activities, 34 C.F.R. [sections] 106.37 (c) (2000).
(2) equivalence in other athletic benefits and opportunities, Nondiscrimination on the Basis
of Sex in Education Programs and Activities, 34 C.F.R. [sections] 106.41 (c) (2)-(10).
(3) effective communication of the interests and abilities of student-athletes of both sexes,
Nondiscrimination on the Basis of Sex in Education Programs and Activities, 34 C.F.R.§ 106.41(c)(1).
Integration during the latter 20th century (Sage, 2000).
Social Class Perspective
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The social class perspective consists of “a group of people that are characterized by
relative similarities of wealth, income, prestige, lifestyle, education, and culture” (Sage,
2000, p.36).
Baseball was primarily made up of men of wealth or professional standing in the capitalistic
class. In the 1920’s and 1930’s, baseball was considered “a vehicle for genteel amateur
recreation and polite social intercourse rather than a hard-fought contest for victory”(
Seymour, 1960, 15).
Football was primarily a sport created for the elite private colleges of the Northeast (ex.
Princeton, Harvard, Yale)
Basketball was primarily a sport that originated at a YMCA Training School and popularized
at exclusive women’s colleges in New England (ex. Smith, Vassar, Wellesley).
C. Highlights from the Literature Review:
Student Athlete College Choice Models
Factors that play a role in college choice:
 Mathes and Gurney (1985)
 College coach.
 Campus environment.
 Adler & Adler (1991)
 The coach.
 Reputation of the coach.
 Konnert and Giese (1987)
 Opportunity to play early in their careers.
Research Methods:
Site of the Study
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Administered among male and female
collegiate student athletes at two
universities in the metro Atlanta, GA
area.
University One consisted of 16 NCAA
Division I intercollegiate athletic teams.
University Two consisted of 15 NCAA
Division I intercollegiate athletic teams.
Research Methods: Participants in the Study
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The participants in the study included Division I male and
female collegiate student athletes between the ages of 18
and 23 that graduated from high school during the years
of 2002-2007. These groups of students were chosen
because they provided the researcher with the ability of
capturing the college choice data of students at the
beginning of their college career, middle of their college
career and the end of their college career.
The number of participants in the study is 426.
Subjects were selected based upon their convenience to
participate in the study.
Pseudonyms were used to protect the anonymity of the
data collected for this study.
Research Methods:
Data Collection Measures
Data Collection Measures
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Permission to administer the survey was obtained from
the Athletic Directors at University One and University
Two.
Study participants were provided with an introductory
letter explaining how the process was to work, a letter of
informed consent, and a survey upon acceptance. These
surveys were used to gather an understanding of the
various issues related to college choice and student
athletes.
Surveys were completed by a total of 303 male and
female collegiate student athletes.
Out of the targeted 426 student athletes, more than 70%
of the selected student athletes completed the survey.
Research Methods: Quantitative Data
Collection Analyses
Data Assignment Groups
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Student athletes were disaggregated according the respective sport,
race, gender, and classification.
Statistical Analyses
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Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses are performed on the
data ascertained from the surveys. Frequencies, correlations, and
cross tabulations are descriptive methodological approaches that
provide information and insight about the relationship that may or may
not exist between the internal and external factors. ANOVA is the
selected inferential methodological approach to determine whether or
not significant differences exist between and within sub groups of the
internal and external factors.
All statistical analyses were performed by SPSS and the levels of
significance are p < .05 and p < .01.
Consultation with a statistics expert from Louisiana State University
was accessed and utilized.
External Factor:
Environmental
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Based on the mean scores for each environmental variable, level of
media coverage was ranked as the most important environmental
factor when it comes to college choice for both, male and female
student athletes. The order of importance from most important to
least important environmental factor is shown in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1
Environmental Factors of College Choice
_____________________________________________________
Item
M
SD
_____________________________________________________
Level of Media Coverage
3.00 a
1.04 a
Level of Internet Coverage
3.07 a
1.06 a
Cost of Attendance
3.45 a
1.22 a
Recreational Facilities
3.50 a
1.06 a
Campus Type
3.72 a
1.16 a
Reputation of Coach
3.83 a
1.13 a
_____________________________________________________
Note. a Based on modified population marginal mean.
M=mean; SD=standard deviation; perspective rated on
a 5-point scale, with 1 = Strongly Agree, 2 = Agree,
3= Neutral, 4 = Disagree, and 5=Strongly Disagree.
External Factor:
Educational
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Based on the mean scores for each educational variable, the
possibility of obtaining graduate and/or professional school
degrees was ranked as the most important educational factor when it
comes to college choice for both, male and female student athletes.
The order of importance from most important to least important
educational factor is shown in Table 1.2.
Table 1.2
Educational Factors of College Choice
______________________________________________________________
Item
M
SD
______________________________________________________________
Possibility of Obtaining Graduate
and/or Professional School Degrees
3.63 a
1.13 a
Academic Reputation of School
3.81 a
.949 a
Individual Academic Ability
3.86 a
1.01 a
Undergraduate Major
3.94 a
1.07 a
______________________________________________________________
Note. a Based on modified population marginal mean.
M=mean; SD=standard deviation; perspective rated on
a 5-point scale, with 1 = Strongly Agree, 2 = Agree,
3= Neutral, 4 = Disagree, and 5=Strongly Disagree.
External Factor:
Psychological
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Based on the mean scores for each psychological variable,
the influence of the mentor/coach was ranked as the most
important psychological factor when it comes to college choice
for both, male and female student athletes. The order of
importance from most important to least important
psychological factor is shown in Table 1.3
Table 1.3
Psychological Factors of College Choice
______________________________________________________________
Item
M
SD
______________________________________________________________
Influence of Mentor/Coach
3.71 a
.990 a
Motivation to be a College Student
3.85 a
1.01 a
Recognition as a College Graduate
3.91 a
.964 a
Prospects of Economic Stability
3.92 a
1.02 a
Achievement of Career Goals
4.07 a
1.10 a
______________________________________________________________
Note. a Based on modified population marginal mean.
M=mean; SD=standard deviation; perspective rated on
a 5-point scale, with 1 = Strongly Agree, 2 = Agree,
3= Neutral, 4 = Disagree, and 5=Strongly Disagree.
Internal Factor:
Racial Class
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Based on the mean scores for each racial class variable,
learning about people unlike myself in athletics was
ranked as the most important racial class factor when it comes
to college choice for both, male and female student athletes.
The order of importance from most important to least
important racial class factor is shown in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4
Racial Class Factors of College Choice
____________________________________________________________
Item
M
SD
____________________________________________________________
Learn About People unlike Myself in Athletics 3.00 a
1.04 a
Interact with the Same Racial Groups
3.07 a
1.06 a
Presence of Different Racial Groups
3.45 a
1.22 a
Learn About People like Myself in Athletics
3.50 a
1.06 a
Presence of the Same Racial Groups
3.72 a
1.16 a
Interact with Different Racial Groups
3.83 a
1.13 a
____________________________________________________________
Note. a Based on modified population marginal mean.
M=mean; SD=standard deviation; perspective rated on
a 5-point scale, with 1 = Strongly Agree, 2 = Agree,
3= Neutral, 4 = Disagree, and 5=Strongly Disagree.
Internal Factor:
Gender Class
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Based on the mean scores for each gender class variable, the
presence of Greek fraternities and sororities on campus was
ranked as the most important gender class factor when it comes to
college choice for both, male and female student athletes. The order
of importance from most important to least important gender class
factor is shown in Table 1.5.
Table 1.5
Gender Class Factors of College Choice
________________________________________________________________________
Item
M
SD
________________________________________________________________________
Presence of Greek Fraternities/Sororities on Campus
2.62a
1.13 a
Male to Female Ratio at the Institution
2.90 a
.959 a
Female to Male Ratio at the Institution
3.03a
1.05 a
Number of Women’s Sports Available
3.16 a
1.11 a
Opportunity to Interact with Students unlike Myself
3.60 a
1.01 a
Opportunity to Interact with Students like Myself
3.47 a
1.02 a
________________________________________________________________________
Note. a Based on modified population marginal mean.
M=mean; SD=standard deviation; perspective rated on
a 5-point scale, with 1 = Strongly Agree, 2 = Agree,
3= Neutral, 4 = Disagree, and 5=Strongly Disagree.
Internal Factor:
Social Class
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Based on the mean scores for each social class variable, the
level of the mother’s education was ranked as the most
important social class factor when it comes to college choice
for both, male and female student athletes. The order of
importance from most important to least important social class
factor is shown in Table 1.6.
Table 1.6
Social Class Factors of College Choice
_____________________________________________________
Item
M
SD
_____________________________________________________
Level of Mother’s Education
3.00 a
1.14 a
Level of Father’s Education
3.06 a
1.18 a
Amount of Family’s Income
3.83 a
1.07 a
_____________________________________________________
Note. a Based on modified population marginal mean.
M=mean; SD=standard deviation; perspective rated on
a 5-point scale, with 1 = Strongly Agree, 2 = Agree,
3= Neutral, 4 = Disagree, and 5=Strongly Disagree.
Cross-Tabulation of External and Internal
Factors by the Gender of Student Athletes
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External vs. External Factors
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When doing a cross tabulation of the external factors, it was
found that 36% of the male survey respondents and 31% of the
female survey respondents view educational factors as the
most significant factor in the college choice process when
compared to the external factors of psychological and
environmental factors. These results were followed by 34% of
the male respondents and 30% of the female respondents
ranking psychological factors as important. Thirdly, 30% of the
male respondents and 26% of the female respondents ranked
environmental factors as important.
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Internal vs. Internal Factors
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When doing a cross tabulation of the internal factors, it was
found that 38% of the male survey respondents and 33% of the
female survey respondents view social class factors as the
most significant factor in the college choice process when
compared to the internal factors of racial class and gender class
factors. These results were followed by 34% of the male
respondents and 29% of the female respondents ranking racial
class factors as important. Thirdly, 29% of the male respondents
and 25% of the female respondents ranked gender class factors
as important.
Research Question One Conclusion,
Discussions and Recommendations
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In the first research question, the study sought to find if there are
statistically significant differences in the external factors of psychological,
educational, and environmental perspectives among student athletes of
different demographic backgrounds. Results of the MANOVA came out to
be not statistically significant as shown below.
University Gender Race
External Factors
Environmental
Educational
Psychological
.983
.631
.682
.549
.688
.370
.688
.829
.929
Scholarship School
Type
Classification
.647
.009
.292
.818
.876
.842
These results show that there are probably no differences in the role of external
factors on the college choice of male and female student athletes because the
probabilities all fall below .999 or the 99.9% chance of being true and worth
discussing. It is the belief of this researcher that even though the .983 level of
significance shown under environmental factors and university is possibly true,
there is no statistically significant difference in the external factors of psychological,
educational, and environmental perspectives when it comes to college choice
among student athletes of different demographic backgrounds.
Research Question Two Conclusion,
Discussions and Recommendations

In the second research question, the study sought to find if there are
statistically significant differences in the internal factors of racial class,
social class, and gender class perspectives among student athletes of
different demographic backgrounds. Results of the MANOVA came out to
be not statistically significant as shown below.
University Gender Race
Internal Factors
Racial Class
Gender Class
Social Class
.277
.347
.712
.275
.802
.268
.755
.492
.948
Scholarship School
Type
Classification
.321
.740
.522
.998
.779
.388
These results show that there are probably no differences in the role of internal
factors on the college choice of male and female student athletes because the
probabilities all fall below .999 or the 99.9% chance of being true and worth
discussing. It is the belief of this researcher that even though the .998 level of
significance shown under racial class factors and school classification is possibly true,
there is no statistically significant difference in the internal factors of racial class, gender
Class, and social class perspectives when it comes to college choice among student
athletes of different demographic backgrounds.
* ~ * Question and Answers * ~ *
* ~ * THE END * ~ *
SCHOLARLY PUBLICATION(S)


Bartee, Jr. Howard. (2008). The Role of
Internal and External Factors Upon the
College Choice for Male and Female
Collegiate Student Athletes. UMI
Dissertation Services, UMI Number:
3323966.
Bartee, Jr., Howard . (2005). The Role of
Antitrust Laws in the Professional Sports
Industry From a Financial Perspective. The
Sport Journal, 8, (2).