Transcript File - humanities

UNIT 1: SKILLS / CHALLENGES
Revision Booklet
Section A
Geographical Skills
Section B
Challenges for The Planet
- Climate Change
- Sustainable Development
Name:
Grade
%
A*
90
A
80
B
70
C
60
D
50
E
40
F
30
G
20
U
0-19
A. GEOGRAPHICAL SKILLS
Key Term
Definition
Label
A simple descriptive point
Annotation
A label with more detailed description or an explanatory point
Aerial Photograph
Photographs taken directly above (like bird’s eye view)
Oblique Photograph
Photographs taken at an angle so that details of buildings can be seen
Satellite Photographs
Images taken from space. They show patterns and features such as street lights in an urban area
Site
The area where a settlement is located (SHAWL)
Situation
The position of a settlement in relation to its surroundings (PARC)
Linear Settlement
Buildings in a line (along a road, valley or coast)
Dispersed Settlement
Individual buildings spaced out – no obvious village centre
Nucleated Settlement
Buildings are grouped together (i.e. around a crossroads)
BASIC SKILLS
How to draw, label and annotate sketches
You may be asked to complete a sketch (lack of time
means it is unlikely you’ll be asked to complete a
whole one).
- Some of the most important lines such as rivers,
coastline and the outline of hills will have been
drawn for you. You could be asked to complete them.
- You could then be asked to add certain features such
as woodlands, settlements or roads.
- You may possibly then be asked to label and
annotate your sketch.
How to interpret aerial, oblique and satellite photographs
Photographs show features of the landscape that are not on OS
maps, such as the crops being grown in the fields. You may be
asked to interpret aerial, oblique or satellite photographs.
Aerial photographs – taken directly above (bird’s eye view).
Oblique photographs – taken at an angle. Show details of buildings
etc.
Satellite photographs – Images taken from space. Show patterns of
features such as street lights in an urban area.
When a photograph is interpreted, it involves describing and
explaining the physical and human geography which can be seen on
it.
Topic 1: Basic Skills
Label and annotate diagrams
Label and annotate maps
Label and annotate graphs
Label and annotate sketches
Draw sketches
Use and interpret photographs
Literacy and use of geographical terminology
CARTOGRAPHIC SKILLS: ATLAS maps
How to draw, label and annotate and interpret sketch maps
In the exam you will usually be COMPLETING sketch maps. Remember the
examiner isn’t looking for a perfect replica of the map, but accuracy with the
location of roads, woodlands or other features will be expected.
If you are asked to complete a sketch map but not told what to include, just
include the important features such as roads, railway lines, settlements and
woods.
TIP!
It is best to use a pencil or black pen to complete your sketch map. Use
different types of lines (e.g. Dashed or dots) to show different features.
Don;t forget to include a key!
1. State the obvious!
(One sentence – give the general trend/pattern).
E.g. Even/Uneven, Clustered/Linear, Dense/Sparse etc.
2. Give an example/examples to support 1.
(Name places/features from the map), Compass directions).
3. Describe any anomalies/Extremes
(something that doesn’t fit the pattern).
E.g. All/None, Highest/Lowest etc.
* Refer to ALL information given on the map
(place names, numbers, compass directions etc.).
Recognise and describe distributions and patterns of human and physical features
Draw, label / annotate sketch maps.
CARTOGRAPHIC SKILLS: OS maps
Do I need to learn all of the symbols?
You will always be given a key with an OS extract
so you don't need to know all symbols......if you
can learn some of them it will save you time so
you don't need to keep looking them up.
Remember! If you’re asked to complete a sketch
map use the correct symbols from the key.
You may be asked to
estimate the area of a
feature. This is simple –
just count the number of
grid squares that are at
least half full
Straight line and winding distances
- To measure a straight line use a ruler to measure the distance between
the points you need. Use the scale to convert this into the ‘real-life’
distance.
- To measure a winding distance, split the route into a number of straight
sections then add up these distances and use the scale to convert these
into km.
Scale = 1:50,000.
Therefore 2cm = 1km. (Each square on your OS map measures 2cm x 2cm).
Cross-sections
It is unlikely that You would be asked to draw a cross-section
but you may be asked to complete and/or annotate one:
-If the land is steep the contours will be close together.
- If the contours are far apart the land is gently sloping.
- An absence of contours indicates flat land.
Recognise symbols using a key
Complete four and six figure references
Calculate straight line and winding distance
Understand direction, using an eight-point compass
Complete and annotate cross-sections
Describe patterns of VEGETATION, LAND USE, and COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Describe (using evidence from an OS map) the site, situation and shape of settlements
Recognise and describe distributions and patterns of human and physical features
Recognise types of human activity such as tourism
Use maps with photographs, sketches and written directions (be able to follow routes)
Patterns of physical features
Relief – the shape of the land.
Are the contours close together or far apart? (Are there any?)
Have I included any figures from the map?
Vegetation
What type is in the extract?
How much of the area is taken up with woodland?
What other land use is in the area?
Rivers and their valleys
Are there any rivers /lakes? Which direction are they flowing?
Is there any human activity/interference?
CARTOGRAPHIC SKILLS: OS maps
Site and Situation of Settlements
You need to be able to describe the site and
situation of settlements on a map.
Site Factors
S – Shelter from strong winds/storms
H – Height above sea level
A – Aspect (the way that the slope faces)
W – Water supply
L – Land that the settlement is built on (fertile,
type of slope)
Situation Factors
The situation of a settlement is its position in
relation to its surroundings. When you are
describing the situation of a settlement on an
OS map you should describe the human and
physical features around it.
P – Places
A – Accessibility
R – Relief
C - Communications
Shape of Settlements
The shape of the
settlement is the pattern
that it makes (the away
the buildings are
arranged). Settlement
shape is concentrated
usually on villages.
Linear
Buildings in a line along a
road, valley or coast.
Dispersed
Individual buildings are
spread out, there is no
obvious village centre.
Nucleated
Buildings are grouped
together (around a
crossroads).
Recognise symbols using a key
Complete four and six figure references
Calculate straight line and winding distance
Understand direction, using an eight-point compass
Complete and annotate cross-sections
Describe patterns of VEGETATION, LAND USE, and COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Describe (using evidence from an OS map) the site, situation and shape of settlements
Recognise and describe distributions and patterns of human and physical features
Recognise types of human activity such as tourism
Use maps with photographs, sketches and written directions (be able to follow routes)
Patterns of human features
Land use
What type of settlement is in the area?
What percentage of the area is taken up with settlement?
Communications
Are the roads and railway lines in the river valleys?
Are the railway lines close to the roads?
Human activity from map evidence
- Services in settlements (churches, post offices, public houses).
- land features (windmills, wind generators).
- Communication routes (roads, railways – with associated
features such as tunnels and level crossings).
- Settlement size 9shown by the area they cover).
- Tourist information (information centres, parking, camp sites
etc.).
GRAPHICAL SKILLS
Bar-type graphs
Bar charts and histograms can be drawn horizontally or
vertically.
Other bar graphs are more difficult, such as compound bar
graphs and bar graphs located on maps.
A compound bar graph has a number of different pieces of
information in each column (e.g. The % of a country’s
population employed in each sector).
Topic 3: Graphical skills
You will need to be able to construct, complete and interpret the following
graphs, charts and maps...
Line graph
Bar chart
Histogram
Compound bar and line
Flow lines
Rose / ray diagrams
Pictograms
Pie diagrams
Scattergraphs
Pyramid graphs
Triangular graphs
Choropleth maps
Isoline maps
Dispersion graph
Proportional symbols such as pie diagrams on maps
Topological diagrams
Line-type Graphs
Line graphs are used to show data that is continuous (e.g. A country's
GDP over time). The information is continuous because there is not a
break in the years.
Flow lines are usually used to display some kind of movement such as
pedestrian or traffic flows over time.
Isolines are lines which join places which are equal (e.g. Contours
which join places of equal height).
Ray / Rose diagrams tend to be used to show the direction of
movement of groups of people. The length of the arrow would be the
number of people and the direction shows where the people came
from.
Compound line graphs show continuous data for a number of
variables – they can be some of the hardest graphs to interpret.
Triangular graphs show three variables on one graph (e.g. Primary,
secondary and tertiary industry for different countries).
Other Graphs
Pie Diagrams
Pictograms
Scatter graphs
Dispersion graphs
Choropleth maps
ENQUIRY SKILLS
Topic 4: Enquiry skills
Identify geographic questions, hypotheses or issues
Analyse geographic questions, hypotheses or issues
Evaluate geographic questions, hypotheses or issues
To establish and follow a sequence to an enquiry
To extract information from field observations and maps
To extract information from drawings
To extract information from photographs
To extract information from diagrams and tables
To extract information from secondary sources
To describe, analyse and interpret evidence
To draw and justify conclusions from evidence
To evaluate data collection techniques
To evaluate data presentation techniques
To evaluate the analysis of evidence
ICT SKILLS
Topic 5: ICT skills
Collection and annotation of photographs and satellite images
use of databases such as census and population data
use of the Internet for example to investigate case studies of volcanic
eruptions, floods etc
extract information from video and TV programmes
Carry out data presentation and analysis techniques
use spreadsheets and data handling software
research and present investigative work.
GIS (Geographical Information Systems) SKILLS
- What is GIS?
- Who uses GIS?
- What is layering?
- How is GIS used?
- How can GIS
improve data
presentation?
- What are the
advantages and
disadvantages of GIS?
GIS is a way of using maps digitally to
make our lives easier. It allows large
amounts of information to be seen by
layering one set of information on to
another. The base information is
abase map of the area being studied.
The ambulance service:
- A call comes into ambulance central
control. The call-handler uses GIS to
quickly find where the patient is
located.
- The next map layer tells central
control where all the other
ambulance crews are at the moment.
- The next layer on the map is traffic
congestion.
Topic 6: GIS skills
Capture and represent geographical
information in systems such as Aegis
Use web mapping such as Google Earth and
Multimap
ADVANTAGES
DISADVANTAGES
A lot of information can be seen on one
map.
The information can become difficult to
see if too much is put on to one map.
Information can be linked together easily
to form patterns that can be analysed.
A computer or other ICT equipment is
needed as the maps are digital.
GIS is available on iPhones and other types
of mobile phone.
The equipment is expensive to buy and
keep up to date.
GIS is of great benefit to many public
services such as the police and utilities.
A certain amount of training is needed to
use the more sophisticated systems.
GPS has made travelling between places
much easier.
June 2010
Describe what is meant by layering information. (4)
B. CHALLENGES FOR THE PLANET
Key Term
Definition
Climate Change
A change in the climate system (temperature / precipitation) over a long period of time.
Congestion Charging
Making motorists pay to travel in large urban areas during periods of heaviest user.
Global Warming
An increase in the temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere.
Greenhouse Effect
The process whereby the earth’s atmosphere traps solar radiation, caused by the
presence of greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse Gases
Gases that trap heat within the Earth’s atmosphere (carbon dioxide, methane and
nitrous oxide).
Park and Ride Scheme
Allow shoppers to park cars in large designated areas on the edge of an urban area and
catch a bus into the town centre.
Solar Output
Energy that comes from the sun.
Sustainable Development
Development that gives a better quality of life now and in future.
UNIT CONTENT
SUCCESS CRITERIA
Causes, Effects and Responses To Climate Change
Use a graph to describe how climate has changed in the
HOW and WHY climate has changed since last 10,000 years.
the last Ice Age.
Explain the causes of climate change since the last Ice
Age.
Explain a variety of causes, including burning of fossil
The causes of CURRENT climate change. fuels and increase of methane.
Local Scale
Give examples to illustrate the actions of individuals (e.g.
Global Scale
car ownership) and groups (e.g. energy producers).
The negative effects that climate change Explain a variety of effects at a local scale (with
is having on people and the environment. examples).
Explain a variety of effects at a global scale (with
Local Scale
Global Scale
examples).
Responses to climate change from local to Outline a range of responses of individuals at a local
global scale.
scale (e.g. Live Simply Campaign).
Local Scale
Global Scale
Sustainable Development For The Planet
Definitions and interpretations of
sustainable development.
The development of policies by large
organisations to make them more
sustainable.
Provide details of global meetings (e.g. Bali 2007).
Define the term ‘Sustainable Development’.
Compare different definitions of ‘Sustainable
Development’.
Give specific details of examples from within the
workplace.
Describe a range of sustainable transport schemes in
Management of transport in urban areas different urban areas.
Explain the effects of each scheme.
Give detail of a range of examples of resource
The effects of resource extraction from
extraction in tropical rainforest environments.
tropical rainforests and their management.
Provide details of contrasting management initiatives.
HOW climate has changed since the last Ice Age
HOW has the world’s climate changed
since the last Ice Age?
Since the end of the last Ice Age (~10,000 years ago)
global temperature has increased by 6°C. Within
this trend, however, there have been a number of
fluctuations.
In the past 100 years the temperature has begun to
rise steadily, with greater increases since the 1960s.
The temperature is projected to increase much
more rapidly in the coming years, being 5°C warmer
in 2100 than it is now.
1. State the obvious!
(One sentence – give the general trend/pattern).
E.g. Increasing/Decreasing, Positive/Negative Correlation etc.
2. Pick out detail from the graph – use adjectives/adverbs.
E.g. Increasing quickly, Gradually decreasing etc.
3. Quote figures/data from the graph – use numbers/dates.
4. Name any anomalies or anything that stands out on graph).
E.g. Highest/lowest values, sudden decreases/increases etc.
* Refer to ALL information given on the graph
(years, place names, numbers, percentages , and...don’t
forget the units!
WHY climate has changed since the last Ice Age
EXTERNAL FACTORS
SOLAR OUTPUT
Energy from the sun changes over time.
1% change in solar output could make
the temperature rise/fall by between 0.5
and 1.0°C.
It is thought that the activity of sunspots
on the Sun’s surface affects solar output.
(reduced activity = cooler temperatures).
VOLCANIC ACTIVITY
Volcanic eruptions release large amounts
of sulphur dioxide and ash into the
atmosphere. These act as a cloak and
reduce the amount of solar (radiation)
energy reaching the Earth’s surface.
SURFACE REFLECTION
During cooler periods when there is a
larger amount of snow and ice on the
earth, global temperature will drop due
to the snow and ice reflecting sunlight
back to space.
ORBITAL GEOMETRY
-The shape of the earth’s orbit around the Sun varies from nearly circular to
elliptical and back again every 95,000 years. Cold glacial periods have occurred
when the Earth’s orbit is circular and warmer periods when it is more elliptical.
- The tilt of the earth’s axis varies over time from 21.5° and 24.5°. The greater
the angle of tilt, the hotter the summers are and the colder the winters are.
When the angle is greater the Earth usually experiences warmer periods.
-- The Earth ‘wobbles’ on its axis a little.
These variations in orbit as known as the Milankovitch Mechanism.
CHANGE IN
ATMOSPHERIC GAS
There is a clear
relationship between the
amount of Coᴤ in the
atmosphere and
temperature variations.
The Greenhouse Effect
keeps heat within the
Earth’s atmosphere by
absorbing longwave
radiation. Without this
global temperature of
the Earth would be
minus 18°C rather than
the present 15°C (i.e.
33°C colder).
TECTONIC ACTIVITY
The movement of the continents by plate tectonics
(continental drift) affects the global pattern of
atmospheric and ocean circulation, and the changing
shape of the Earth’s surface causes winds and ocean
current to change. This process is too slow to have
much effect on climate over the relatively short
geological timer span of the last 10,000 years,
however.
INTERNAL FACTORS
Jan 2011
Explain 2 causes of climate change since the last Ice Age. (4)
The causes of current climate change
Burning of Fossil Fuels
Greenhouse gases absorb radiation going back out
from Earth, ‘trapping’ it making life on Earth possible
(it would be too cold otherwise). Too high a level of
these gases would make temperatures too high for life
– the range within which life is possible is quite
narrow so the level needs to stay relatively stable.
The most important greenhouse gases are:
Water Vapour
Methane
Carbon Dioxide
Nitrous Oxide
CFCs
Increase of Methane in the Atmosphere
Methane is 24x more potent a greenhouse gas than CO₂.
Methane levels have risen as the number of livestock animals
has increased. Rising incomes throughout the world have
increased the demand for meat, meaning that the numbers of
animals reared (especially cattle and sheep) have soared in
the last few decades.
Where does methane come from?
Livestock animals produce methane as part of their digestive process –
belching it out while chewing cud and excreting it in their waste. About
15-20% of global methane emissions come from livestock.
Wetlands (including marshes and swamps).
Growing of rice.
Landfills which contain rotting vegetable matter.
Burning vegetation.
Contribution of human activities to greenhouse gases
%
Power Stations
21%
Waste Disposal and Treatment
4%
Land Use and Biomass Burning
10%
Residential, Commercial and Other Sources
10%
Fossil Fuel Retrieval, processing and Distribution
11%
Agricultural By-products
13%
Jan 2011
Transportation Fuels
14%
Outline how fossil fuels have caused the increase in CO₂ emissions . (4)
Industrial Processes
17%
In recent years almost all climate experts have agreed
that global temperatures are increasing. Most (not
ALL) blame human activity for most of this increase –
focusing attention on rising levels of CO₂ and
methane. Most of this comes from burning fossil
fuels (coal, oil, natural gas).
June 2010
Explain how burning of fossil fuels contributes to current climate change. (4)
Vast majority
comes from
increases in
wealth around
the world
leading to
increased
demand for
energy, food,
consumer
goods,
transport.
The causes of current climate change
The Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse gases are gases in the
atmosphere that absorb and emit radiation.
This process is the fundamental cause of the
greenhouse effect.
Most greenhouse gases come from the
combustion of fossil fuels in cars, factories
and electricity production. Different gases
have different heat-trapping abilities:
Methane = 20x
Nitrous Oxide = 300x
CFCs = >1000x
But...CO₂ is present in much greater
concentrations and is therefore the most
responsible.
Heat energy from the
Sun (shortwave
radiation) beams down
onto the earth. Some
of it passes through a
blanket of gases in our
atmosphere.
Some solar radiation is
reflected by the earth’s
atmosphere and surface.
Some solar energy is absorbed
by the Earth’s surface and
converted into heat (infrared longwave radiation).
Infrared radiation is reemitted from the
Earth’s surface.
Same passes through the
atmosphere and is lost in
space.
Some is absorbed by
greenhouse gas molecules,
heating the Earth again.
The negative effects climate change is having on people and the
environment
CHANGING PATTERN OF CROP YIELDS
The world’s most important foods are rice and wheat
– and these are grown in distinct regions. The wheat
‘belts’ (where wheat is grown) in countries such as
the USA, Canada and Russia are in regions that are
likely to experience changes in their climate. What is
much less clear is whether these impacts will be
negative or not. Any changes will need a speedy
response by governments and farmers...almost every
country depends on food imports and at any moment
the world has about 40 days’ worth of food supply in
store. If climate change reduces harvests
significantly then food prices will rise and some
populations will be very badly affected – especially in
sub-Saharan Africa.
In the Colca region of Peru villages have been
abandoned – they no longer have a water supply
because of the lack of snow falling on the mountains.
Melting of glaciers at
the Poles could affect
ocean water
movement – melting
ice in the Arctic could
cause the gulf Stream
to be diverted further
south, leading to
colder temperatures
in western Europe.
Research has shown that
90% of the glaciers in
Antarctica are retreating.
There will be more
storms and floods
in the UK, if homes
and factories
continue to be built
on floodplains the
cost of flood
damage will
increase.
Rising sea levels
threaten the survival
of small low-lying
islands and coral reefs.
RISING SEA LEVELS
RETREATING GLACIERS
Rising sea level is caused by two processes:
1. The addition of water from melting of land-based
ice sheets.
2. Expansion of sea water itself as it gets warmer
(‘thermal expansion’).
Predictions about sea-level change depend on the
various #models’ used to predict the rates of global
warming. The most pessimistic forecast shows sea
levels rising by nearly 1metre by the end of the
century. The most optimistic shows a rise of less
than 20cm.
Between 1993 and 2006 sea levels rose 3.3mm a
year. This will lead to an 88cm rise in sea levels by
the end of the century.
Bangladesh is one of the most vulnerable countries in the
world. Tropical cyclones and river flooding pose a threat to
its population, many of whom live ion the fertile floodplains
and deltas of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. If sea level
rises by 1m Bangladesh will lose 17.5% of its land.
In India there will be a 50%
decrease in the amount of
land available to grow wheat
due to hotter, drier weather.
The majority of the world’s glaciers ate retreating
(i.e. melting), some more quickly than others. This is
thought by some to be due to the increase in
temperatures caused by climate change.
Loss of sea ice is
a problem for
polar bears of
Wrangel Island
(Russian nature
reserve) because
they cannot
travel over land
to catch their
prey.
Countries closest to the equator are likely to suffer
the most as their crop yields would decrease.
Countries such as Tanzania and Mozambique will
have longer periods of drought and shorter growing
seasons. They could lose almost 1/3 of their maize
crop.
A Greenpeace report predicts that the
great barrier reef in Australia will be dead
within 30 years due to rising sea
temperatures.
Many islands in the Pacific Ocean
are already being affected by riding
sea levels – 2 of the Kiribati islands
are now covered with sea water.
In Kenya droughts now happen
every 3 years instead of every 10
years. In 2006 Kenya suffered its
worst drought for 80 years. Many
farmers lost all of their cattle.
Due to rising sea levels Tuvalu (a
group of 9 coral atolls in the pacific
ocean) has started to evacuate its
population to New Zealand, with
75 people moving each year.
June 2010
Describe the negative effects that climate change is having
on the environment. Use examples in your answer. (4)
Responses to climate change
GLOBAL Agreements between nations
1988
Global concern about climate change has
been mounting since the late 1980s. In
1988, the UN Environmental Programme and
the World Meteorological Organisation set
up the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate
Change (IPCC) which began detailed research
of the enhanced greenhouse effect and the
role played by human activities in driving up
atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide,
methane and nitrous oxide.
EARTH SUMMIT, RIO DE JANEIRO 1992
In June 1992 the UN held a meeting in Rio de Janeiro which has
since been called the Earth Summit. This was the first meeting
that a number of decisions were made by the most powerful
countries in the world about their response to climate change.
The result was the first international environment treaty which
aimed to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions. The United nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) was signed
by 154 nations agreeing to prevent ‘dangerous’ warming from
greenhouse gases. It set voluntary targets for the reduction of
these emissions.
UN Cancun Talks 2010
Governments ended the 2010 UN Cancún talks (in Mexico) with a series of agreements:
- A “green fund” will distribute money to help poor countries cope with climate change - it should eventually
supply $100bn a year to developing countries, but the question of how the money for it will be raised has still not
been resolved. It remains an aspiration.
- Increased international co-operation on low-carbon technology - the idea of transferring knowledge of clean
technology between countries.
- A way to help developing nations preserve their forests - formal backing was given for the UN's deforestation
scheme, Redd (reducing emissions from deforestation and degradation), under which rich countries pay poorer
nations not to chop down forests and so lock away carbon emissions. But details on when and exactly what form
the scheme will take are still vague.
-Countries agreed to the principle of having their emissions cuts inspected. Such "monitoring, reporting and
verification" will depend on the size of the country's economy, though who will carry out the inspections – the
country itself, the UN or another body – was not specified.
COPENHAGEN CLIMATE SUMMIT 2009
Governments agreed to try to prevent temperatures rising more than 2°C above [reindustrial levels - that figure is still adopted by governments as the limit of safety
(beyond which the effects of climate change may become catastrophic).
- The Copenhagen Accord (that the governments signed) formed the basis of the
2010 deal at Cancun.
However, the pledges made were not legally binding.
KYOTO PROTOCOL 1997
The UNFCC’s voluntary targets were replaced by legally binding
controls on emissions. This was signed at the Kyoto conference
in December 1997 and came into force in February 2005.
Countries that signed and ratified the protocol agreed to cut
greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% compared with 1990 levels
globally. Each country agreed to a national limit on emissions
which ranged from 8% for the EU, 7% for the USA, 6% for
Japan and 0% for Russia. It also allowed increases of 10% for
Iceland and 8% for Australia because they were not using all of
their carbon allowance. To achieve their targets countries
could either cut their emissions or trade with other countries in
carbon. This means a country could buy carbon credits from
another country. E.g. Iceland could trade 2% of its carbon
credits with the EU to enable the EU to meet its target of 8%.
By 2008 181 countries had signed the Kyoto protocol. It failed
to achieve its full effect partly because it was not originally
supported by the USA. The exemption of emerging economies
from seeking binding targets became a serious weakness when
China overtook the USA to become the world’s largest carbon
emitter. The Kyoto protocol expires in 2012. Any new pact will
be ground-breaking if it can bring together for the first time
developed and rapidly emerging economies with legally
binding targets to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Any
agreement that does not include China as a signatory risks
losing the support of other key players.
BALI CONFERENCE 1997
The IPCC Confirmed that there is a greater than 90% chance that global
warming in the past 50 years has been caused by human activity.
Representatives of more than 180 countries were present at a conference in
Bali (Indonesia) which resulted in the Bali Roadmap. In this initiatives were
agreed to try t reach a secure future climate. All nations agreed to negotiate
a deal to tackle climate change but were unable to agree the details at Bali –
they promised to finalise the details by 2009 but this has not yet happened.
Responses to climate change
GLOBAL Agreements between nations
Pledges of the Global Superpowers
European Union has
made a binding
pledge to cut its
emissions by 20% by
2020 (compared with
1990 levels) and is
willing to raise the
target to 30% if other
developed countries
agree to a bigger
commitment too.
United States
Is still the world’s
second biggest carbon
dioxide emitter,
producing 5,900
million tonnes of CO2
each year. No binding
pledge yet – a Bill
mandating proposed
cuts of 17% by 2020,
compared with 2005
levels, has yet to pass
through the US
Senate.
China has a 2020
target to reduce the
carbon intensity of its
fast-growing GDP.
GHG emissions in
2020 will be 40%
higher than today, but
lower than they might
otherwise be.
China’s main priority
is a massive
programme of poverty
alleviation that
requires greater
energy use.
India has set a nonbinding target of 24%
reduction in emissions
intensity is sought by
2024, equal to savings
of nearly 2000
mtCO2(e). India’s
rulers agree that the
world must limit its
temperature rise to
2°C but believe
developed nations
should do more than
the emerging
economies.
Responses to climate change
GLOBAL actions of non-governmental organisations
NGOs like Greenpeace are focusing their campaign against climate change on the use of fossil fuels. They are
trying to get governments, especially the UK government to change their policies so that energy is produced in a
more sustainable way. They have a number of solutions on their website: www.greenpeace.org.uk.
A lot of energy is wasted when it is being produced in inefficient
power stations – approximately 2/3 is lost in waste heat in cooling
towers. If this waste heat was captured the amount of fuel needed
to produce energy would be reduced. E.g. Combined heat and
power systems – Eastcroft, Nottingham.
From 2005 industry has been required to reduce its emissions or buy
carbon credits from other companies if they exceed their targets.
Transport produces 22% of the UK#’s carbon emissions. Low carbon
cars need to be produced and public transport made more efficient.
Air traffic produces an even larger amount of our carbon emissions
than cars. If the government did not allow any more airports to be
built and raised taxes on flights to make them more expensive this
would reduce the amount of carbon emissions.
Responses to climate change
LOCAL responses
SCHOOLS
‘Livesimply’ is a campaign which ran throughout the whole of
2007. It was initiated by the catholic Church to encourage
students to consider how they make choices in life. It
provided a number of resources for schools which made
students think about their impact on the worlds and
sustainability.
Many schools are introducing energy efficient water and
central heating systems run from renewable sources such as
wind turbines or solar panels.
LOCAL INTEREST GROUPS
‘Manchester Is My Planet’
This group is running a pledge campaign to encourage
individuals to reduce their carbon footprint and become
involved in a number of green energy projects. The group
started in 2005 and works with the local council. There are
now more than 20,000 individuals who have pledged to work
towards a low carbon future. One of the initiatives is the
Green Badge Parking Permit. People who own cars which
have been recognised as having low carbon emissions can
apply for a Green Badge parking permit which allows car
owners to buy an annual parking permit for NCP car parks
within Greater Manchester at a 25% discount.
LOCAL COUNCILS
The UK’s target is to cut carbon emissions to 15% below the
1990 levels by 2010 and 20% by 2020.
The government believes that local councils are important in
the reduction of carbon emissions as they have an influence
on local home owners (15% of UK carbon emissions are
produced by courses). Since April 2008 local councils’ success
in cutting down carbon emissions have been one of their
targets. To hep them meet these targets the government has
given them £4million. The idea is for those local councils that
have already introduced ideas to cut carbon emissions to help
those that haven’t.
Are you living simply?
- Use local farmers’ markets – do you really need
imported food?
- Reduce the unnecessary luxuries in your life – how
many pairs of shoes do you have?
- Get on your bike.
- Recycle.
Definitions and interpretations of sustainable development
1980 – the United Nations released the Brundtland
Report:
In the UK four key sustainable areas have been
identified:
‘Development which meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs’
1. Climate change and energy: Reducing greenhouse
gas emissions in the UK and worldwide while at the
same time preparing for the climate change that
cannot be avoided.
2. Natural resources: The limits of the natural
resources that sustain life, i.e. Water, air and soil are
understood so that they can be used most efficiently.
3. Sustainable communities: Places that people live
and work in need to be looked after by implementing
ideas such as ecotowns ands green energy.
4. Sustainable consumption and production: The
ways that products are designed, produced, used and
disposed of should be carefully controlled.
The report focused on three areas:
- Conservation and enhancement of the environment
by the development of new technologies.
- Achievement of social equality by developing
countries being allowed to meet their basic needs of
employment, food, energy, water and sanitation in a
sustainable way.
- Economic growth of all countries in the world.
Most large TNCs claim to have
adopted the idea of ‘sustainable
development’ – but their
interpretations may differ from
the ‘official’ UN definition. For
some ‘sustainable’ means
‘responsible’.
The development of policies by large organisations to make them more
sustainable
Large companies have realised that they must be more sustainable. They can achieve this in many different ways:
-During the manufacturing of the products.
- In the recycling of packaging material.
- By encouraging customers to recycle products.
- By encouraging employees to be more sustainable in the workplace.
FOOD Industry: Asda / Wal-Mart
Products sold in Asda stores have
travelled many miles. The last part of
their journey is from a regional
distribution centre (a large warehouse
where they are stored until the local
stores need them). When they arrive
here they are packed in polythene and
shrink wrap – one distribution centre in
Oxfordshire was filling a skip 4x per week
with this material, costing the company a
lot of money. They have now installed
machines that crush the waste plastic to
10% of its original size which are then
collected once per week by a firm which
recycles plastic. This benefits Asda who
now receive payment for their plastic, and
benefits the environment because plastic
so not being sent to landfill.
COMMUNICATIONS Industry: Nokia
Nokia are concerned that people do not
recycle old mobile phones. This is an issue
because >50% of users change their phone
every year (44% of these old phones are left
in a drawer and never used). Nokia are
trying to persuade people to recycle old
phones as 100% of them can be recycled
(e.g. To make trumpets, park benches or
even gold rings). If every mobile user
recycled it would save 240,000 tonnes of
raw materials. Nokia promote their
campaign in all stores and on their website
(www.nokia.com) which gives information
on where to find recycling points.
GLOBAL Company: Unilever
www.unilver.com/ourvalues
Kenya, - a branch of the company
(Unilver Tea Kenya) is looking again at
how to use wood from eucalyptus trees
as fuel to dry the picked tea-leaves.
The company has:
- Changed its tree planting policy,
introducing coppicing which cuts back
the tree to stimulate growth (will
increase wood supply by 15%).
- Improved wood burning techniques by
drying the wood for longer – with more
efficient boilers this will reduce wood
consumption by about 25%.
Jan 2011
Dartmoor National Park Authority is one large
organisation that is being more sustainable. Explain
the policies of one other organisation that has
developed to make it more sustainable. (3)
Management of transport in urban areas
Sustainable transport involves maintaining the standard of transport that is required for society and the economy to function efficiently without placing too
much pressure on the environment. In the Sustainable Development Strategy for the UK the government has stated that it will need to take action to
control the rate of traffic growth, improve the performance of vehicles and make the public aware about the environmental impacts of polluting emissions
from transport. People need to be encouraged to reduce their dependency on cars, but affordable alternative public transport systems must be available
to allow them to do this. There are two ways to manage traffic in urban areas:
1. Respond to the increasing demand by building more roads.
2. Reduce traffic with range of sustainable schemes.
Congestion Charging
The practice of making motorists pay to travel into large
urban areas during periods of heaviest use. The aim is to
reduce the number of vehicles entering the city which
will ease traffic congestion and therefore lower pollution
emissions. It will hopefully lead to more sustainable
forms of transport like walking, cycling or public transport
being used.
The first city to introduce a congestion charge was
Singapore. Motorists have been charged to go into the
central city area since 1974. A number of other cities
have now introduced congestion charging zones including
Oslo, London and Stockholm.
London introduced the congestion charge in 2003. By
2008 it had had the following beneficial effects:
- Traffic levels have been reduced by 21%.
- 65,000 fewer car journeys a day.
- An increase of 29,000 bus passengers entering the zone
during the morning peak rush period.
- 12% increase in cycle journeys within the zone.
- 12% reduction in the emission of nitrous oxide and fine
particulates.
Durham, which introduced a congestion charge in 2002,
has seen an 85% drop in traffic entering the paying zone.
Park and Ride
Park and Ride schemes allow shoppers to park
their cars in large designated parking areas on
the edge of the urban area and catch a bus
intro the town centre. Park and Ride operates
in 87 towns and cities sin the UK (e.g. Durham).
Parking is free but there is often a charge for
the bus travel to the city centre. Park and Ride
sites are usually located on the main routes
coming into the urban area, so they are easily
accessible for the greatest number of car users.
Cambridge park and Ride:
-5 P&R sites covering all main routes coming
into the city.
- 4,500 parking spaces available.
- Double-decker buses carrying up to 70
passengers leave the parks every 10 minutes
during the day Mon – Sat.
- Costs £2.20 per day to catch the bus into the
city centre.
- Sites are well lit and have security systems
opening during opening hours – waiting rooms,
toilets, baby changing facilities.
Other Sustainable Transport Schemes
- Car sharing where workers share lifts to work using
their own cars. If half of UK motorists received a lift
one day a week vehicle congestion and pollution
would be reduced by 10% and traffic jams by 20%.
-Designated cycle and walking paths within the
urban area. E.g. Milton Keynes = 273km of cycle
paths.
- Road lanes that only allow cars with at least two
passengers to use them.
- Pedestrianised areas which restrict private vehicle
access but allow buses and trams to operate.
- Road lanes which give priority to buses ensuring
they get an easy passage through congested areas.
- Restricting car parking in central urban areas so
motorists are forced to use public transport.;
June 2010
Explain how transport is being managed in urban
areas. You should refer to a number of different
sustainable schemes in your answer. (6)
The effects of resource extraction from TRFs and their management
EFFECTS
Tropical Rainforests are lightly populated regions, often inhabited by groups who have little power in the capital city. These peoples have often lived sustainably in
the rainforest for many thousands of years, living off its resources without plundering them.
Rainforests are ‘fragile’ because the vegetation grows very quickly but also breaks down very quickly. In the wet and hot conditions, leaves rot in days rather than
weeks. As soon as they rot , the nutrients released are taken up by plant growth. If you remove this vegetation you remove the source of the nutrients and the soil
rapidly becomes infertile and useless.
In such ‘fragile’ environments the impacts of human activities are more obvious and the damage done is hard to reverse.
BIODIVERSITY LOSS
Fragmentation of natural habitats caused by the
installation of pipelines leads to species having
smaller populations that are not viable in the long
term. Companies operating close to (or even
inside) protected areas don't always follow the
rules laid down to maintain biodiversity.
SOIL AND AQUATIC POLLUTION
Many things can go wrong as oil is
brought to the surface and processed.
Soils and toxic by-products are
sometimes dumped near the site or
stored in open waste pits – polluting
the surrounding lands and water.
DEFORESTATION
To set up their operations, companies open
roads through forests. These bring settlers
who have access to timber and new land,
and who may engage in slash-and-burn
activities and logging.
LOCAL CONFLICTS
Indigenous and local people often gain the
least from natural resources extracting but
stand to lose the most. Compensation from
energy firms and the government is often
very small. In addition, local communities are
not always informed of extraction projects.
AIR POLLUTION
Some of the by-products of natural gas are
burned in the open air. The flames pollute
the atmosphere and can cause fires,
threatening the lives of local inhabitants.
The effects of resource extraction from TRFs and their management
MINING - BRAZIL
A variety of minerals are extracted from the Amazon rainforest in Brazil:
-The Carajas iron ore mining project uses wood from the forest to power its pig iron plants,
resulting in annual deforestation of 6100km².
- Mercury is used in gold mining – this is very toxic and is found in high concentration in fish.
90% of the fish caught in the gold mining region are decontaminated with mercury. If eaten
it causes cancer and high miscarriage rates among local tribes people.
OIL EXTRACTION - ECUADOR
Oil is extracted from the
Oriente region of Ecuador.
-Toxic waste water mixed with
crude oil seeps out of 600
unlined pits into the subsoil,
polluting surrounding
freshwater and farmland.
- Hydrocarbons are
concentrated 200-300x more
in the water than is
permissible in water used for
human consumption. Stomach
cancer is 5x more frequent in
oil exploitation areas and
there are may more
miscarriages amongst
indigenous people.
- Many plants such as the
periwinkle which can be used
to cure childhood leukaemia
are now an endangered
species.
EFFECTS
LOGGING - CAMEROON
Large areas of the Cameroon have been cut down for
commercial wood production.
-Roads built by the logging companies have opened up the forest
for illegal loggers and commercial hunting. This has led to
slaughtering of animals such as elephant and gorilla.
- The Baka pigmies are often employed for a few days to show
logging companies the best trees which unwittingly lead to them
causing the destruction of their own environment.
GAS PROJECT - PERU
In the Camisea region there is a large natural gas and pipeline
project. This is home to many Amazonian tribes including the
Yine, Nanti and Nahua.
Effects:
- Deforestation has caused drainage to be altered, habitats
destroyed and animal movements to be disturbed.
- Soil erosion and landslides have been caused resulting in the
silting up of local rivers – this has led to a decline in fish catches
which has caused a rise in malnutrition.
- Tribal people have caught diseases that they are not immune to.
- Only ¼ of the Nanti live to be teenagers.
MINING - INDONESIA
The Freeport mining company mines gold and
copper in West Papua, Indonesia since 1960. The
company mines an area of 3.6 million hectares.
-285,000 tonnes of untreated mining waste is
dumped into the River Aghawaghon every day.
This pollutes the river and the coastal area by the
river’s mouth.
- Crocodiles and tortoises in the area are
currently on the brink of extinction due to
pollution.
- Locals are exploited by being given the lowest
paid jobs.
June 2010
Outline the effects of resource extraction on tropical
rainforest environments and the people who live
there. Use examples in your answer. (4)
The effects of resource extraction from TRFs and their management
FRENCH GUIANA
The government of France, which controls the rainforest in French
Guiana in South America, has refused to allow a gold mine. This
was decided after an environmental assessment had been carried
out.
IAMGOLD, a Canadian mining company, wanted to mine gold in an
area close to a rainforest reserve. This area is home to 700 plant
species, 100 different animals and 254 bird species. The open-cast
mine would have affected the biodiversity of the area and put water
containing cyanide into the swamp.
MALAYSIA
In Malaysia the government has rejected plans to build a coal-fired
power plant at Silam, on the island of Borneo. It decided that the
site was too close to the ecologically sensitive areas of Darvel Bay
and Danum Valley. The government decided that it did not want to
pollute the area and more environmentally friendly forms of energy
would need to be found.
The government will not develop these resources at the expense of
the rainforest which has many endangered species such as the
orang-utan.
VENEZUALA
Since 2008 the government of Venezuela has not issued any more
permits to mine gold or diamonds. The country does not need to
exploit the minerals for economic reasons due to its oil reserves,
therefore it can afford to conserve its forest area. The government
now protect both the biodiversity and local people.
MANAGEMENT
MADAGASCAR
In 2001 a Swiss company (Givaudan) sent a team to Madagascar to
survey for new fragrances. It developed 40 aromas which were
then sold. The company shared the profits with local communities
through conservation and development initiatives.
NATURE CONSERVANCY
Nature Conservancy is an NGO which works with indigenous people
in the Amazon Rainforest. The indigenous people now have the
right to their land which is 20% of the Amazon rainforest. Nature
Conservancy works with these people to help them develop the
forest sustainably. They involve the whole community ion their
projects which usually start with ethnomapping......
- A satellite image of the area is drawn on by local people
identifying natural resources, villages and areas where illegal
logging or hunting takes place.
- This is digitised and returned to the local people.
- The whole community use the map to plan their use of the area.
Jan 2011
Explain the management initiatives used in rainforest areas where
resources have been extracted. Use examples in your answer. (6)
1. State the obvious!
1. State the obvious!
(One sentence – give the general trend/pattern).
E.g. Even/Uneven, Clustered/Linear, Dense/Sparse etc.
Repeat as
often as
necessary
2. Give an example/examples to support 1.
(Name places/features from the map), Compass directions).
3. Describe any anomalies/Extremes
(something that doesn’t fit the pattern).
E.g. All/None, Highest/Lowest etc.
* Refer to ALL information given on the map
(place names, numbers, compass directions etc.).
(One sentence – give the general trend/pattern).
E.g. Increasing/Decreasing, Positive/Negative Correlation etc.
2. Pick out detail from the graph – use adjectives/adverbs.
E.g. Increasing quickly, Gradually decreasing etc.
3. Quote figures/data from the graph – use numbers/dates.
4. Name any anomalies or anything that stands out on graph).
E.g. Highest/lowest values, sudden decreases/increases etc..
* Refer to ALL information given on the graph
(years, place names, numbers, percentages , and...don’t forget the units!
This is an easy one! There’s only one thing to remember if
given a photograph......
1. Read the question carefully – in full.
1. Pick out features/activities that you can SEE in the
photograph and refer to them specifically in your answer.
E.g. Describe / Explain / Outline / Compare / Use examples / Use data
I.e. Don’t describe things that you can’t see in the photograph just
because you think it should be there.
(see next page)
2. Underline all command words and instructions
3. Look at how many marks the question is worth
4. Answer the question
(don’t include information that isn’t asked for – it won’t earn you any
marks and will waste your time and space on the paper).
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Description
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BASIC
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1x Generic
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1x Specific point
3x Specific Points
OR
1x Specific Point
+ Explanation Of
It
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CLEAR
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3x Specific Points
Every Point
Clearly Explained
More Than 3x
Specific Points
Every Point
Clearly Explained
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Answering Exam Questions......
EXPLICIT
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