Transcript Techniques for Reading and Responding to

Techniques for Reading and Responding
to Complex Informational Text
Thomas Gunning, Professor Emeritus,
Southern Connecticut State University
How well do elementary and
middle schoolers comprehend
complex informational text?
NAEP Results- released questions
Questions similar to those on Common Core
For 4th & 8th graders
What questions do they have difficulty with?
Combined comprehension & responding difficulties
Test selections and answers on following slides are drawn from: National Center for Education Statistics (2013). NA
Questions Tool. Available online at
http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/itmrlsx/search.aspx?subject=reading
The article describes male emperor penguins as "tough."
Give two pieces of information from the article that show that
male emperor penguins are tough.
Full Comprehension 51%
Responses at this level provide two pieces of information
from the article that show that male emperor penguins
are tough.
They can survive a cold winter.
They don't eat for two months.
Partial Comprehension 32%
Little or No Comprehension 14% little/no 3% omitted
May lack foundational skills
Explain how emperor penguins stay warm
when they form huddles.
One of the impressive ways emperors stay toasty
when temperatures plummet or the wind blasts
is to "huddle.” A huddle forms when hundreds,
even thousands, of males crowd together. The
birds move constantly, slowly rotating from the
cold outside rings to the warm, wind-free center.
Explain how emperor penguins stay warm when they
form huddles.
One of the impressive ways emperors stay toasty when
temperatures plummet or the wind blasts is to "huddle.”
A huddle forms when hundreds, even thousands, of males
crowd together. The birds move constantly, slowly rotating
from the cold outside rings to the warm, wind-free center.
Full Comprehension 27%
Responses at this level explain how emperor penguins
stay warm when they form huddles. Responses mention
one of the following:
- They share body heat.
- They rotate from the outside to the inside of the huddle.
_ They are blocked from wind.
Partial Comprehension 33%
Responses at this level provide a definition of huddles
or information about huddles but do not explain how
penguins stay warm when they form huddles.
There are many penguins packed together.
It is 77 degrees inside a huddle.
You can see the steam rising off the penguins in the huddle.
Little or No Comprehension or Omitted 40%
Difficulty Comprehending or Failure to Explain How
Partial Comprehension 33%
Responses at this level provide a definition of huddles
or information about huddles but do not explain how
penguins stay warm when they form huddles.
There are many penguins packed together.
It is 77 degrees inside a huddle.
You can see the steam rising off the penguins in the huddle.
Little or No Comprehension or Omitted 40%
Difficulty Comprehending or Failure to Explain How
Describe the roles that male and female emperor
penguins play in hatching and raising their young.
Give information about the roles of both male and
female penguins in your answer.
Extensive- 7%
Essential- 56%
Four-part question:
What is the role of the male in hatching?
What is the role of the male in raising?
What is the role of the female in hatching?
What is the role of the female in raising?
Failure to answer all parts of the question
Describe the roles that male and female emperor
penguins play in hatching and raising their young.
Give information about the roles of both male and
female penguins in your answer.
Extensive- 7%
Essential- 56%
Four-part question
What is the role of the male in hatching?
What is the role of the male in raising?
What is the role of the female in hatching?
What is the role of the female in raising?
Failure to answer all parts of the question
Why is "A Voice for Civil Rights" a good heading for
the section that follows it on pages 3–4? Use information
from the article to support your answer.
Full 10% Partial 41%
Infer relationships- give reasons,
explain why
Mahalia Jackson was a voice for civil rights
What does the author mean when she says, "Every species
of bee has its own story" (page 3)? Use information from
the article to support your answer.
Difficulty: Medium (43.13% Correct)
Responses at this level indicate that there are many
different species of bees, but they do not support
that statement with information from the article.
Failure to explain why
The last section of the article is called "A Message Home.”
Is this a good heading for that section? Explain your
answer using information from the article.
A Message Home
Before letting her go, scientists attached a special "pop-up
" satellite tag to the white shark. A month later the tag
automatically popped off the shark, floated to the surface
and sent data to an orbiting satellite.The tag told scientists
that the shark was alive and had swum 200 miles south
since her release. This is as close as any shark gets to
sending a postcard: "The water is fine. Wish you were
here!”
Full- 20%
Partial- 22%
Difficulty explaining why
Describe a similarity and a difference between the way
the two articles approach the subject of invasive
species. Support your answer with references to both
of the articles.
Difficulty: Medium (48.09% Correct)
Failure to use a similarity and a difference. Failure to
use multiple sources.
Key Difficulties on NAEP
• Difficulty providing support for answers
• Difficulty explaining how
• Difficulty explaining why
• Difficulty with multi-part answers
Other Comprehension Difficulties
• Making appropriate use of prior knowledge. May over-rely
on prior knowledge and fail to consider the information in the
text. .
• Integrating sentences. Students may understand each
sentence, but might not integrate their meaning.
• Seeing similarities and differences or making comparisons
and contrasts.
• Making inferences. This is especially important when the
reader is expected to supply information that the author has
not included.
• Establishing cause-effect relationships. May have difficulty
noting the effect of an event or action.
• Organizing information. May have difficulty keeping key
events in order or a series of steps in a process (Dewitz &
Dewitz, 2003; Dewitz, 2012; Gunning, 2014; Wade, 1990)
Along with traditional strategies, such as predicting,
summarizing, questioning, inferring, visualizing, and
monitoring, the following should be stressed:
• Scaffolding
• Asking Why and How
• Using Text Structure
• Using Organized Graphic Organizers
• Paraphrasing
Scaffolding
Provide hints or clues in the questions or directions.
These are gradually faded out.
Why the Sea Level is Rising
Glaciers are also melting and shrinking. Glaciers are made up
of fallen snow that has turned into ice. They flow like rivers, only
much slower. Lately, they have been speeding up. Many of them
flow toward the ocean, then break off in chunks--sometimes huge
chunks. In places such as Glacier National Park, the glaciers are
melting and disappearing. The air is getting warmer, and less snow
is falling during winter to renew the melted parts of the glaciers.
As more sea ice and glaciers melt, the global sea level rises.
But melting ice is not the only cause of rising sea level. As the
ocean gets warmer, the water actually expands! Sea level has
risen 6.7 inches in the last 100 years. In the last 10 years, it has
risen twice as fast as in the previous 90 years.
Source: Adapted from NASA (n.d.). Climate change. http://
climate.nasa.gov/kids/bigQuestions
3. Why is the sea level rising? Be sure to give two causes.
Write your answers on the lines. If you don’t remember
the causes, go back to the article.
Cause 1: _____________________________________________________
Cause 2: _____________________________________________________
Effect of Global Warming on Sea Ice
Global air temperatures near Earth's surface rose one
degree Fahrenheit in the last century. One degree may not seem
like much. But when we are talking about the average over the
whole Earth, lots of things start to change. For one thing, the
oceans have gotten warmer. When the oceans get warmer,
sea ice begins to melt in the Arctic and around Greenland. NASA's
Earth satellites show us that every summer some Arctic ice melts and
shrinks, getting smallest by September. Then, when winter comes, the
ice grows again. But, since 1979, the September ice has been getting
smaller and smaller and thinner and thinner.
Source: Adapted from NASA (n.d.). Climate change.
http://www.nasa.gov/audience/forstudents/k-4/stories/
what-is-climate-change-k4.html
How do we know that there is less ice around Greenland
now than there was years ago? What fact in the article tells us this?
Write your answer on the lines.
What Air Is Made Of
What’s in air? Air is made up mostly of nitrogen.
Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless gas. We can’t see it and
we can’t smell it. Nitrogen helps plants grow. Air also has
a lot of oxygen. Oxygen is also a colorless, odorless gas.
Oxygen is what we need to breathe. Air also has small bits
of a number of other gases. Small bits of dust can be found
floating on the air. And high up small particles of ice
can be found.
•When you come across a word whose meaning you do not know, look for
clues to the meaning of the word. What clues from the article could be used
to help you figure out the meaning of particles? Hint: Take a close look a
the sentences that come before the one that contains particles. Write
your answer on the lines
_______________________________________________
•What clues from the article could be used to help you figure out the
meaning of odor? Hint: Take a look at the sentence that comes after the
one that contains odorless. Write your answer on the line.
Air Pressure and the Weather
Air pressure can cause changes in the weather. Cold air
weighs more than warm air and so exerts more pressure on the
earth. Because it exerts more pressure, cold air causes areas of high
pressure to form called highs. On the other hand, warm air
creates areas of low pressure called lows. Highs usually bring
clear, dry weather. Because they are heavier, highs sink. As the
air in a high moves downward, it compresses and heats any
clouds that are around so that they evaporate. With lows, the
opposite happens. Because it is lighter, warm air rises. As the
warm air in lows rises, it is cooled and forms clouds, which
may bring rain.
1. Why does cold air create high pressure areas? This is a hard
question. Read the explanation in the article again and then
write your answer on the lines.
2. Why do highs usually bring clear, dry weather? Read
the explanation in the article again and then fill in the diagram
below to show how this happens.
Bell and another inventor created the photophone. The photophone
used light instead of electricity to carry sounds. Bell believed that the
photophone was his greatest invention. He said it was greater than the
telephone. However, the photophone was ahead of its time. Phones that
used light to carry sound didn’t come into use until the 1980s. Bell also
invented the audiometer, which is used to test people’s hearing. Bell
created a device for taking the salt out of seawater and a device for
locating icebergs. Bell and his workers also improved the airplane and
phonograph records and worked on a boat that has an engine that lifts
it out of the water.
1. What makes you think that Bell had a number of different interests?
Finish the answer. Hint: In your answer give examples of his
different inventions.
Bell created many different kinds of inventions. He invented _________
__________________________________________________________
Creating many kinds of inventions shows that Bell had many interests.
Using Organized Graphic Organizers to Organize Information
By completing or creating graphic organizers students will be
helped to integrate key information in a passage. This would
be helpful for understanding complex processes,
such as the water cycle.
Organizers are related to thinking processes involved and
structure of text.
1. A Web shows how a main idea and its details. A Web could be used to help you organize the
information in the paragraphs. Fill in the following Web with words that support the main idea.
1. There are a number of steps in the formation of clouds. A good way to keep in mind the steps in an
activity is to make a diagram showing the steps. Go back to the article to make sure you get all the steps
and get them in the right order. When you write a step, shorten it so that it fits in the block.
Paraphrasing
Students put difficult sentences or passages into
their own words in order to foster comprehension.
“Paraphrasing text can facilitate reading
comprehension by transforming the text into
a more familiar construct or by activating
relevant prior knowledge” (McNamara, 2004).
Bernoulli’s principle law stating that the pressure of a fluid varies
inversely with speed, an increase in speed producing a decrease
in pressure and vice versa (such as a drop in hydraulic pressure
as the fluid speeds up flowing through a constriction in a pipe)
and vice versa. The principle also explains the pressure differences
on each surface of an aerofoil, which gives lift to the wing of an
aircraft. (Brimblecombe, Gallannaugh, & Thompson, 1998, p. 85)
Speed causes the pressure of a fluid to change. Increasing the speed
of the flow makes the pressure decrease. Pressure increases when
the speed of the flow is decreased. When fluid is pushed through
a narrow pipe, the fluid speeds up and the pressure in the pipe drops.
This principle explains what keeps planes up. Because air flows
more swiftly over the top of a wing than the underside, there is less
pressure and the airplane is given lift.
Build Knowledge
Not enough to develop thinking and comprehension
skills
Need to ask: What facts, concepts, information have
students learned?
How has their knowledge increased?
Need to develop topics fully
Doesn’t take any more time
Instead of an article on guide horses, have
several articles on ways service animals help
people
A teen who helped others- how even young
people can help others
A mouse who howls- how and why animals
communicate
Sources of High-Quality Informational Text
NASA for Educators
http://www.nasa.gov/audience/foreducators/k-4/index.
html#.U073I8epqix
Resources are provided for K-4, 5-8, and 9-12.
Homework Topics: “What are clouds?” “What is a satellite?
” “What is Jupiter?”
K-4 (RL easy 3) 5-8 (RL 4-5)
Climate Kids: NASA’s Eyes on the Earth
http://climatekids.nasa.gov/
Good use of subheads that pose questions: How do we
know Earth is getting warmer? IL 3-8 RL- 4-5
What Are Clouds?
A cloud is made of water drops or ice crystals floating
in the sky. There are many kinds of clouds. Clouds
are an important part of Earth's weather.
How Do Clouds Form?
The sky can be full of water. But most of the time
you can't see the water. The drops of water are too
small to see. They have turned into a gas called
water vapor. As the water vapor goes higher in the
sky, the air gets cooler. The cooler air causes the
water droplets to start to stick to things like bits of
dust, ice or sea salt.
NASA 3.7 (CCSS 2) 570L
What Are Clouds?
A cloud is a mass of water drops or ice crystals suspended
in the atmosphere. Clouds form when water condenses
in the sky. The condensation lets us see the water vapor.
There are many different types of clouds. Clouds are
an important part of Earth's weather and climate.
How Do Clouds Form?
Clouds form from water in the sky. The water may
evaporate from the ground or move from other areas.
Water vapor is always in the sky in some amount but is
invisible. Clouds form when an area of air becomes
cooler until the water vapor there condenses to liquid form
At that point, the air is said to be "saturated" with water
vapor. The air where the cloud forms must be cool enough
for the water vapor to condense. The water will condense
around things like dust, ice or sea salt - all known as condensation
nuclei. The temperature, wind and other conditions where
a cloud forms determine what type of cloud it will be. 6.3 (5 CCSS) 830L
Library of Congress
www.loc.gov
America’s Story
Meet Amazing Americans
Presents brief biographies with illustrations of
famous Americans, IL-3-8 RL-4.
Jump Back in Time
Provides an overview of an era in American history and
a number
of related articles that portray key figures and events of the era
. IL-4-8 RL-5.
Explore the States
Gives a brief history of each state and brief descriptions of
interesting events and customs in the state. IL-4-8 RL-5.
Smithsonian’s History Explorer
http://historyexplorer.si.edu/home/
A wide range of topics is explored through primary
sources and other resources.
http://invention.smithsonian.org/home/
Lemelson Center for the Study of Inventions and Innovation
http://invention.smithsonian.org/home/
Invention at Play
Tells the stories of a number of inventions, such as robotic
ants, Kevlar, Velcro, barbed wire and others. Explores
sources of inspiration for inventions. IL 5-8 RL 6
Smithsonian National Zoological Park
Meet Our Animals
http://nationalzoo.si.edu/Animals/default.cfm
Provides descriptions of a variety of animals. Has numerous
photos.
Also have some film clips and a video cam for the pandas.
IL all ages RL varies
Web Weather for Kids
http://eo.ucar.edu/webweather/cloud.html
Provides information about clouds, storms and the elements of
weather. Learning aids include animations and quizzes that
appear after each subtopic. IL 3-8 RL 3-4
U. S. Census Bureau
State Facts for Kids
http://www.census.gov/schools/facts/
Includes basic information about the state along with
census information that compares current statistics with prior
statistics. Has data for adults and children and a number of key
businesses. IL 3-8 RL 3-4
Central Intelligence Agency
The World Factbook
Contains basic information about every country in the world.
Also has maps. IL 6-8 RL 7-8
Read short, worthwhile texts
(Coleman & Pimentel, 2012)
Shorter, challenging texts that elicit close reading and re-reading are provided regularly at
each grade. The study of short texts is particularly useful to enable students at a wide range
of reading levels to participate in the close analysis of more demanding text. The Common
Core State Standards place a high priority on the close, sustained reading of complex text,
beginning with Reading Standard 1. Such reading focuses on what lies within the four
corners of the text. It often requires compact, short, self-contained texts that students can read
and re-read deliberately and slowly to probe and ponder the meanings of individual words,
the order in which sentences unfold, and the development of ideas over the course of the text.
Source of High-Quality
Informational Text
Data Bases- Subscribed to by state, local,
or school libraries- EBSCO
I-Conn. Org
Free for anyone who has a CT library
card
IConn
Resources
Kids Search
603 Articles
Service Animals
HTML- usually no illustrations
But text-to-speech feature
PDF- text & illustrations
Rewordify.com
Rewords difficult words
Can enter text
Web sites
Text in their library- classic texts
Aesop embodies an epigram
Aesop represents a clever saying
The felicity which I reflected on
has induced me …
The happiness which I reflected on
has caused me
Aesop embodies an epigram
Aesop represents a clever saying
The felicity which I reflected on
has induced me …
The happiness which I reflected on
has caused me
5 levels
Reword:
1.Almost all hard
words
2.Top 80%
3.Top 60%
4.Top 40%
5.Only the hardest
Gives a READ level
5 levels
Reword:
1.Almost all hard
words
2.Top 80%
3.Top 60%
4.Top 40%
5.Only the hardest
Gives a READ level
Customizing
Which words are rewordified- can
add & delete words
How original word is shown- tap on
easier word to see original
Can speak words
Can print quizzes using words &
definitions
Steppingstone Approach
• Use easier books on same topic to
prepare for more complex book
– 5 books on climate change
– 5 books on Kennedy
• Build background & vocabulary with
each book. Also build decoding skills, if
necessary.
Climate Change
Edwards, R. (2008). Polar bears in danger. New York: Grosset & Dunlap.
RL 3.2
Waters, K. (2009). Earth in danger. New York: Scholastic. RL 4.0
Simon, Seymour (2013). Global warming. Washington, DC: Smithsonian
Science. RL 4.2
Cole, J. (2010). The magic school bus and the climate challenge. New
York: Scholastic. RL 4.3
Royston, A. (2008). Global warming. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. RL 4.3
Nemeth, J. D. (2012). Climate change. New York: PowerKids Press. RL
4.5
Collins, T. (2010). Getting to the bottom of global warming: An Isabel Soto
investigation. Mankato, MN:Capstone. RL 5.1
Faust, D. K. (2009). Global warming: Greenhouse gases and the ozone
layer. New York: PowerKids Press. RL 5.6
Climate Change
Edwards, R. (2008). Polar bears in danger. New York: Grosset & Dunlap.
RL 3.2
Waters, K. (2009). Earth in danger. New York: Scholastic. RL 4.0
Simon, Seymour (2013). Global warming. Washington, DC: Smithsonian
Science. RL 4.2
Cole, J. (2010). The magic school bus and the climate challenge. New
York: Scholastic. RL 4.3
Royston, A. (2008). Global warming. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. RL 4.3
Nemeth, J. D. (2012). Climate change. New York: PowerKids Press. RL
4.5
Collins, T. (2010). Getting to the bottom of global warming: An Isabel Soto
investigation. Mankato, MN:Capstone. RL 5.1
Faust, D. K. (2009). Global warming: Greenhouse gases and the ozone
layer. New York: PowerKids Press. RL 5.6
Other Techniques
WIRC
ReQuest
Indexing
WIRC (Writing Intensive Reading
Comprehension)
•Thinksheets are a during-reading guide.
•Guide students through brief segments of
text. Text is read & discussed in
5 to 10-minute segments.
•Two-handed reading- text & questions
are aligned.
•Responses are then discussed in pairs,
small groups, or whole class.
Source: Gunning, T. (2014). Creating Literacy Instruction for All Students in Grades in Pre-K to 8 (9th Ed.) Boston: Pearson.)
Although breaking down tasks into more manageable
segments helped struggling readers, they then had
difficulty integrating the segments.
A graphic organizer such as a semantic map or frame
was added to the think sheets to help students integrate
their responses.
Students eventually put all the information together and
write a response to an essay question.
ReQuest
• Teacher and student(s) alternate asking questions
about the text until the students have built enough
background to predict what the rest of the text
might be about.
• Ask questions sentence by sentence- student first,
then teacher.
• After one paragraph, set purpose for reading.
The Living Earth
Living things play a part in soil creation from the
beginning. Lichens and mosses can colonize bare rock
surfaces. They produce acids that eat into the rock surface,
releasing the minerals that plants need to grow. The
mosses and lichens also help to trap wind-blown particles
in cracks and depressions in the rock surface. Over long
periods, soil begins to form. (Snedden, 1999, p. 36)
Student: What plays a part in soil creation?
Teacher: Living things.
Student: When do the living things start playing a part
in the creation of soil?
Teacher: From the very beginning.
Teacher: Do you have any more questions for me?
Okay. It’s my turn. My question is what does the
sentence mean when it says “living things”?
Teacher: Lichens are plants.
Teacher: Where do lichens grow?
Student: It says that lichens colonize bare rocks, so I
suppose that means that they grow on bare rocks.
Teacher: Good answer. Lichens are made up of lots of
tiny plants known as algae and fungi. Because there
are many of them growing together, they are said to
colonize or set up colonies.
Student: What do lichens produce?
Teacher: Acids.
Student: What do the acids do?
Teacher: The acids eat into the rocks, and this begins
to break them down.
Student: What is released?
Teacher: Minerals.
The discussion continues until concepts and vocabulary are
clarified and a purpose
for reading the rest of the article is set.
Indexing
According to Bruner (1964), we make sense
of our environment through three
modalities: enactive representation (action),
iconic representation (imagery), and
symbolic representation (language).
Indexical HypothesisGlenberg
Indexing (i.e.,mapping) symbols, such as
words, to objects is a necessary step in
language comprehension
Meaning is tied to action- if read about a
ball being kicked, area of brain
responsible for kicking will light up
Remember more of what was handwritten
than what was typed
“Our bodies are designed to interact with
the world which surrounds us. We are
living creatures, geared toward using
physical objects - be it a book, a
keyboard or a pen - to perform certain
tasks,” Anne Mangen says.
http://www.uis.no/news/article2978250.html
• Manipulating objects assists the indexing
process and improves the student’s ability to
create a representation of the text. Thus if
the story said, “The horses ran out of the
barn and into the corral,” the reader would
use toys to show the horses running out of
the barn and running into the corral.
Giraffes
Giraffes are tall animals. *A giraffe is taller
than an elephant. *A giraffe is so tall that it
can eat the leaves on the tops of trees.
Giraffes have many enemies. *Lions,
hyenas, and Nile crocodiles hunt giraffes.
Because they stand tall and have excellent
eyesight, giraffes can see far away. *A
giraffe can see a lion or hyena that is a mile
away.
*A giraffe is taller than an elephant.
* A giraffe is so tall that it can eat the leaves on
the tops of trees.
*Lions, hyenas, and Nile crocodiles hunt giraffes.
A giraffe can see a lion or hyena that is a mile away.
Texts Already Set Up for
Manipulatives
Sunshine Makes the Seasons
Franklyn Branley
Common Core selection
Can use with
• science experiments
• directions
• recipes
• explanations of difficult processes
• actions in story
• math problems
Commercial Kits
• Klutz books
• Science toys
• Playschool toys
Automated Steppingstone
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
DELIBERATE PRACTICE AND
READING ABILITY by Sean Hanlon
(2013)
Study of Oasis Learning
Oasis Learning
Placed according to Lexile score
Chose articles between +100L (66 & 82% expected
comprehension)
Completed embedded modified cloze items
Received corrective feedback
Level of articles adjusted according to performance
Received feedback on number of articles & words
read, time spent, percentage correct, changes in lexile
levels
Oasis Study (Hanlon, 2013)
1,369 students grades 2-8
Access for average of 1,422 calendar
days
Read average 212.2 articles, 151,574
words
Start 780- low practice 1100, avg
1175, high 1200
Start 431-low practice 900, avg 1025
high 1050
Oasis Learning
Placed according to Lexile score
Chose articles between +100L (66 & 82% expected
comprehension)
Completed embedded modified cloze items
Received corrective feedback
Level of articles adjusted according to performance
Received feedback on number of articles & words
read, time spent, percentage correct, changes in lexile
levels
Oasis Study (Hanlon, 2013)
1,369 students grades 2-8
Access for average of 1,422 calendar days
Read average 212.2 articles, 151,574
words
Start 780- low practice 1100, avg 1175,
high 1200
Start 431-low practice 900, avg 1025 high
1050
Growth in Reading Ability as a Response to
Using EdSphere™ by: Gary L. Williamson,
Ph.D., Juee Tendulkar, Sean T. Hanlon,
Carl W. Swartz, Ph.D.
www.lexile.com/about-lexile/research-briefs
392 eighth graders- tracked from grade 2
Gained average of 1L for each session above
& beyond what was expected
DELIBERATE PRACTICE
• Targeted practice in which each person is
engaged in developmentally appropriate activities
• Real-time corrective feedback that is based
on each person’s performance
• Intensive practice on a daily basis that
provides results that monitor current ability
• Distributed practice that provides
appropriate activities over a long period of time
and which allows for monitoring growth towards
expert performance
• Self-directed practice in an activity for times
when a coach, mentor or teacher is not available
• Progress monitored on a developmental scale
that allows educators to monitor growth from novice to
expert.
Hanlon, S. T. (2013). The relationship between deliberate practice
and reading ability. Ph.D. thesis, The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.
For More Information
• Go to
Buildingliteracy.org