Transcript Santino

Sustainable development
and
the Kyoto Protocol
Domenico Santino
ENEA – Global Climate Project
[email protected]
OUTLOOK
• Sustainability
• Climate Change
• The road to Kyoto
Sustainability
Giving economic development a future
Society capitals
1.
2.
3.
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Natural capital
Natural resources
Services provided for human activity
Ability of natural environment to maintain its long-term health
Human/social capital
Connectedness to people and society
Education, skills and health of population
Financial/Built capital
Manufactured goods, buildings, infrastructure
Information resources
Credit and debt
World Commission on Environment and Development,
also known as Brundtland Commission [1987] defined
sustainable development such as : “…development that meets
the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs"
Other definitions
"…our economic systems should be managed so that we
live off the dividend of our resources, maintaining and
improving the asset base (...) as development proceeds,
the composition of the underlying asset base changes”
Repetto R. 1985, "The global possible - Resources, development and
the new century", Yale University Press, New Haven.
"Sustainability, like justice, is a value not achievable
by purely individualistic market process"
Daly H. E. 1986, "Thermodynamic and economic concept as
related to resource-use policies: comment", Land Econ. 62."
"In simple terms, sustainable development argues for:
a) ... Resources harvest rates at levels no higher than
managed or natural regeneration rates; b)...wastes
disposal rates should not exceed rates of (natural or
managed) assimilation in the counterpart ecosystems"
Pearce D. W. 1988, "The sustainable use of natural resources in
developing countries", in Turner R. K. (ed.) 1988
"We take development to be a vector of desirable social
objectives, and elements may include:
• increase in real income per capita
• improvements in health and nutritional status
• educational achievement
• access to resources
• a 'fairer' distribution of income
• increases in basic freedoms
... sustainable development is then a situation in which the
development vector increases monotonically over time".
Pearce D., Barbier E. and Markandya A. 1990, "Sustainable
development.
Economics
and environment in the Thirld World",
Earthscan Publications.
SUSTAINABILITY
different levels
WEAK SUSTAINABILITY
Manufactured capital of equal value can take the place of natural
capital
STRONG SUSTAINABILITY
The existing stock of natural capital must be maintained and
enhanced because the functions it performs cannot be duplicated
by manufactured capital
Sustainable development can also be seen
as the answer from human societies to the
increasing concern of the world wide
environmental issues
Global environmental issues
• Climate change
• Ozone layer depletion
• Desertification
• Endangered biodiversity
• Acid rains
CLIMATE CHANGE
A global challenge
Variations of earth surface temperature
Action Strategies
1. Climate change “mitigation” strategy
Anthropogenic intervention to reduce the
sources of ghgs and/or enhance their
absorption (sinks)
Action Strategies
2. Climate change “adaptation” strategy
Interventions to reduce the impacts of
climate change
Mitigation purposes
1. Short term :
 stabilization of anthropogenic greenhouse gas
emissions
2. Long term :
 stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations
in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent
dangerous anthropogenic interference with the
climate system
Mitigation options
• Lowering emissions
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Efficient use of energy
Carbon sequestration

Renewable energies


New energy vectors (hydrogen)
Nuclear energy
• Enhancing ghgs removal (sinks)

Forestation, reforestation, afforestation
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Curbing soil degradation

Optimization of forestry management
The road to Kyoto
A first step for a long path
Significant events in the development of a
global awareness of the environmental issues
• 1972: Club of Rome publishes controversial Limits to
Growth. (Meadows D.H et al.). It predicts dire consequences
if growth is not slowed.
 1972 UN Conference on Human Environment (UNEP) held
in Stockholm. The conference is rooted in the regional
pollution and acid rain problems of northern Europe. Leads
to the establishment of many national environmental
protection agencies and the United Nations Environment
Program (UNEP).
• 1983
World Commission on Environment and
Devolopment, also known as Brundtland Commission
• 1987
Our Common Future (Brundtland Report). Report
of the World Commission on Environment and
Development weaves together social, economic, cultural
and environmental issues and global solutions. Popularizes
term "sustainable development.".
• 1992 First Earth Summit: UN Conference on Environment
and Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro.
Agreements reached on the action plan "Agenda 21" and
on the Convention on Biological Diversity, the Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and
non-binding Forest Principles.
• 1997 Kyoto Protocol:
greenhouse emissions
international
agreement
on
UNFCCC
Its negotiations lasted from 1991 untill
1992.
It entered into force on 21 March 1994.
Its objective is written in art. 2
Art. 2 of UNFCCC
"The ultimate objective (...) is to achieve, in accordance
with the relevant provisions of the Convention, stabilization of
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level
that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference
with the climate system. Such a level should be achieved
within a time-frame sufficient to allow ecosystems to adapt
naturally to climate change, to ensure that food production is
not threatened and to enable economic development to
proceed in a sustainable manner ".
Art. 3 of UNFCC 1/2
"The Parties should protect the climate system for the benefit
of present and future generations of humankind, on the basis
of equity and in accordance with their common but
differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities.”
Art. 3 of UNFCC 2/2
(...) The Parties should take precautionary measures to
anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of climate change
and mitigate its adverse effects. Where there are threats of
serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty
should not be used as a reason for postponing such measures,
taking into account that policies and measures to deal with
climate change should be cost-effective so as to ensure global
benefits at the lowest possible cost".
The Kyoto Protocol
agreed on 7 December 1997
The Protocol has since been ratified by over 150
countries, and entered into force (became legally
binding) on 16 February 2005.
The Kyoto Protocol deals with:
• the 1st phase of mitigation strategy
• only developed countries (as in Annex B of the
Protocol)
Purpose
Developed countries (OCSE and East and Central Europe
countries) agreed to targets that will reduce their overall
emissions of six greenhouse gases by 5.2% below 1990
levels over the period 2008-2012.
The ghgs of the Kyoto Protocol
• carbon dioxide (CO2),
• methane (CH4),
• nitrous oxide (N2O),
• sulphur hexafluoride (SF6),
• hydrofluorocarbons (HFC),
• perfluorocarbons (PFC).
Countries included in Annex B to the Kyoto Protocol and their
emissions targets
Country
Target (1990* 2008/2012)
EU-15, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Estonia,
Latvia, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Monaco,
Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Switzerland
-8%
US**
-7%
Canada, Hungary, Japan, Poland
-6%
Croatia
-5%
New Zealand, Russian Federation, Ukraine
0
Norway
+1%
Australia
+8%
Iceland
+10%
*Some economies in transition (EITs) have a baseline other than 1990.
** The US has not ratified the Kyoto Protocol.
How to reach the goal?
• Domestic Policies and Measures;
• Flexible Mechanisms :
– Emissions Trading;
– Joint Implementation;
– Clean Development Mechanism.
Emissions Trading
According to art.17 to PK, countries may acquire assigned
amount units (AAUs) from other countries that find it easier
to meet their emissions targets
Joint Implementation
According to art.6 to PK, "any Party included in Annex I
(Developed Countries) may transfer to, or acquire from, any
other such Party emission reduction units resulting from
projects aimed at reducing anthropogenic emissions by
sources or enhancing anthropogenic removals by sinks of
greenhouse gases in any sector of the economy, provided
that: (...) (b) Any such project provides a reduction in
emissions by sources, or
an enhancement of removals by
sinks, that is additional to any that would otherwise occur".
Clean Development Mechanism
According to art. 12 of KP: “The purpose of the clean
development mechanism shall be to assist Parties not
included in Annex I in achieving sustainable development
and in contributing to the ultimate objective of the
Convention, and to assist Parties included in Annex I in
achieving compliance with
their quantified emission
limitation and reduction commitments under Article 3 “
Additionality
According to the Kyoto Protocol Articles on Joint
Implementation and the Clean Development Mechanism,
Emissions Reduction Units (ERUs) will be awarded to
project-based activities provided that the projects achieve
reductions that are "additional to those that otherwise would
occur"..
Additionality
A distinction is made between environmental additionality
and economic/financial additionality
Financial additionality means projects will only earn credit
if funds additional to other commitments are specifically
committed to achieve the greenhouse gas reductions
Environmental additionality requires that emission
reductions represent a physical reduction or avoidance of
emissions over what would have occurred under a
business as usual scenario
European Union ratified the Kyoto Protocol
during the Meeting of the Ministries of the
Environment on 4 March 2002.
Under the Kyoto Protocol, the European Union
and its Member States have agreed to meet a
joint target of a -8% reduction in greenhouse
gas emissions below 1990 levels by 2012.
This 'bubble' arrangement allows the EU's target to be
redistributed between member states to reflect their
national
circumstances,
requirements
for
economic
growth, and the scope for further emission reductions.
In June 1998, environment ministers agreed how the
target should be shared out.
Member State
Reduction target (%)
Austria
-13
Belgium
-7,5
Denmark
-21
Finland
0
France
0
Germany
-21
Greece
25
Holland
-6
Ireland
13
Italy
-6,5
Luxemburg
-28
Portugal
27
Spain
15
Sweden
4
United Kingdom
Total UE
-12,5
-8
EU Emissions Trading Directive
2003/87/EC
The EU Emissions Trading Directive 2003/87/EC was agreed
on 22 July 2003 following discussions between the European
Commission, the European Parliament and the European
Council.
The Directive came into force on 25 October 2003 when it
was published in the EU's Official Journal.
The scheme is based
fundamental principles :
on
six
• It is a “cap-and-trade” system.
• Its initial focus is on CO2 from big industrial emitters.
• Implementation is taking place in phases, with periodic
reviews and opportunities for expansion to other gases
and sectors.
• Allocation plans for emission allowances are decided
periodically.
• It includes a strong compliance framework.
• The market is EU-wide but taps emission reduction
opportunities in the rest of the world through the use of the
CDM and JI, and provides for links with compatible
schemes in third countries.
About
Member
11500
installations
States
are
in
covered
the
25
by
the
Directive, accounting for around 45% of
the EU's total CO2 emissions or about 30%
of its overall greenhouse gas emissions.
Thanks for your attention!