Transcript UNFCCC Training Materials_Water Resources

CGE TRAINING MATERIALS VULNERABILITY AND ADAPTATION
ASSESSMENT
CHAPTER 6
Water resources
Chapter Objectives and Expectations
• Having read this presentation, in conjunction with the related
handbook, the reader should:
a) Have an understanding of potential hydrological impacts of
climate change on water resources and how to assess those
impacts
b) Be able to identify the various stakeholders involved in the
water sector and their potential influence on the water sector
and water planning
c) Have gained an overview of methods, tools and data required
for conducting impact assessment
d) Have gained knowledge on different adaptation options
available for water resources
e) Be familiar with different inputs and outputs of the WEAP
model using a hypothetical river basin, and how such outputs
are used in impact assessments.
Outline
• Hydrologic implications of climate change for water
resources
• Drivers and potential impacts
• Methods, tools and data requirements to assess
vulnerability in water resources
• Adaptation responses by systems and sectors
Effective V&A Assessments
• General questions:
a) What is the assessment trying to influence?
b) How can the science/policy interface be most effective?
c) How can the participants be most effective in the process?
• General problems:
a) Participants bring differing objectives/ expertise
b) These differences often lead to dissention/ differing
opinions.
Effective V&A Assessments (continued)
• General questions:
a) What is the assessment trying to influence?
b) How can the science/policy interface be most effective?
c) How can the participants be most effective in the
process?
• General problems:
a) Participants bring differing objectives/ expertise
b) These differences often lead to dissention/ differing
opinions.
Effective V&A Assessments (continued)
• To be valuable, the assessment process requires:
a) Relevancy
b) Credibility
c) Legitimacy
d) Consistent participation
• It is an interdisciplinary process:
a) The assessment process often requires a tool
b) The tool is usually a model or suite of models
c) These models serve as the interface
d) This interface is a bridge for dialogue between scientists and
policy-makers.
Hydrologic Implications of Climate Change
• Precipitation amount:
a) Global average increase
b) Marked regional differences
• Precipitation frequency and intensity:
a) Less frequent, more intense (Trenberth et al., 2003)
• Evaporation and transpiration:
a) Increase total evaporation
b) Regional complexities due to plant/atmosphere
interactions.
Hydrologic Implications of Climate Change (continued)
• Changes in run-off
a) Despite global precipitation increases,
areas of substantial run-off decrease
• Coastal zones:
a) Saltwater intrusion into coastal aquifers
b) Severe storm-surge flooding
• Water quality:
a) Lower flows could lead to higher contaminant
concentrations
b) Higher flows could lead to greater leaching and
sediment transport.
Hydrologic Implications of Climate Change (continued)
Fifteen-model mean changes in (a) precipitation (%), (b) soil moisture content (%), (c) run-off (%), and (d) evaporation (%).
To indicate consistency of sign of change, regions are stippled where at least 80% of models agree on the sign of the mean
change. Changes are annual means for the scenario SRES A1B for the period 2080-2099 relative to 1980-1999. Soil moisture
and run-off changes are shown at land points with valid data from at least ten models.
Source: Bates et al. (2008)
Africa Example – ECHAM4/OPYC
Africa Example – GFDLR30
Impacts: Soil Moisture
• Decreases in the sub-tropics and the Mediterranean
region
• Increases in East Africa, central Asia and some other
regions with increased precipitation
• Decreases also occurring at high latitudes, where snow
cover diminishes.
Impacts: Run-off and Stream Flow
• Significant regional variation in run-off and stream flow:
a) Run-off reduced in southern Europe
b) Run-off increased in south-east Asia
c) Stream flows in high-latitude rivers increase
d) Stream flows in the Middle East, Europe and Central
American tend to decrease.
Impacts: Coastal Zones
• Increased inundation and coastal flooding causing
salinization of groundwater and estuaries
• Changes in the time and volume of freshwater run-off
affecting salinity, sediment and nutrient availability
• Changes in water quality may come as a result of the
impact of sea level rise on storm-water drainage
operations and sewage disposal in coastal areas.
Impacts: Water Quality
• Higher water temperatures may exacerbate many forms
of pollution
• Changes in flooding and droughts may affect water
quality through sediments, nutrients, dissolved organic
carbon, pathogens, pesticides and salts
• Sea level rise is projected to extend areas of salinization
of groundwater and estuaries.
Impacts: Groundwater
• Surface water variability directly tied to groundwater
variability in unconfined aquifers
• Increased abstraction from population growth and
reduced surface water availability will likely result in
declining groundwater levels.
Impacts: Demand, Supply and Sanitation
 Climate change will likely add further stress to water
service issues including: supply, demand and
governance.
Water Resources – A Critical V&A Sector
• Often critical to both managed and natural systems
• Human activity influences both systems
External
pressure
External
pressure
Managed
systems
Natural
systems
State of system
Product, good
or service
Process control
Example: Agriculture
Little control
of processes
Example: Wetlands
services
What Problems Are We Trying to Address?
• Water planning (daily, weekly, monthly, annual):
a) Local and regional
b) Municipal and industrial
c) Ecosystems
d) Reservoir storage
e) Competing demand
• Operation of infrastructure and hydraulics (daily and sub-daily):
a) Dam and reservoir operation
b) Canal control
c) Hydropower optimization
d) Flood and floodplain inundation.
The Water Resource Sector Water’s “Trade-Off” Landscape
Water for nature
Water for agriculture
Water quantity
Water quality
Seasonality of flow
Regulation
Water for recreation
Domestic water
Water for industry
Water Resources from a Services Perspective
• Not just an evaluation of rainfall-run-off or streamflow
• But an evaluation of the potential impacts of global
warming on the goods and services provided by
freshwater systems.
Freshwater Ecosystem Services
Extractable; Direct Use; Indirect Use
Nutr.
cycling
Flood/
drought
mitig.
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



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


Trans
-port
Harvest.
biota
Water
for ag.,
urban,
indust.
Recreation,
aesth.
beauty
Upper
Rivers



Lower
Rivers




Delta



Bay



Power
gener.
Regen.
of soil
fertility
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Erosion
control
Habitat
/
biodiversity
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Water
purification
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
Ideal Water Situation
• Adequate quantity
• Appropriate timing of its availability
• Appropriate quality.
What do we do to achieve
this desired water situation?
A summary of Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources
Mismatch Between Water Demand and Supply
• Attributes of the mismatch:
a) Adequate Quantity
b) Appropriate timing of its availability
c) Appropriate quality
d) Reasonable price
• What impacts would these mismatches have on:
a) Environment
b) Economy
c) Society
• Adaptation issues:
a) What are the most effective measures to reduce this mismatch.
Adaptation Responses by Systems and Sectors
• Agriculture and food security, land use and forestry
• Human health
• Water supply and sanitation
• Settlements and infrastructure
• Economy: insurance, tourism, industry, transportation
• Gender.
Water resource adaptation in agriculture
• Adoption of varieties/species with increased resistance
to heat shock and drought
• Modification of irrigation techniques
• Adoption of water efficient technologies to “harvest”
water and conserve soil moisture
• Modification of crop calendars, i.e. timing or location of
cropping activities
• Implementation of seasonal climate forecasting.
Water Resource Adaptation in Human Health
• Malnutrition and water scarcity may be the most
important health consequences of climate change
• Health impact assessments often reveal the
opportunities to embed the health effects of any
adaptation strategy in the water sector, such as those
in water supply and sanitation.
Water Supply and Sanitation Adaptation
• Construction of new storage reservoirs
• Using alternative water sources, such as groundwater
or desalination
• Rainwater harvesting as well as controlled reuse
• Use of decentralized systems.
Adaptation in Settlements and Infrastructure
• Adaptive responses are likely to be very expensive in
built up areas. Adaptation should be carefully
considered in the context of:
a) Settlements in high-risk locations, such as coastal
and riverine areas, due to flood and storm damages
and water quality degradation as a result of saline
intrusion
b) Settlements whose economies are closely linked to
a climate-sensitive water-dependent activity, such as
irrigated agriculture water related tourism.
Examples of Adaptation – Water Supply
• Construction/modification of physical infrastructure:
a) Canal linings
b) Closed conduits instead of open channels
c) Integrating separate reservoirs into a single system
d) Reservoirs/hydro-plants/delivery systems
e) Raising dam wall height
f) Increasing canal size
g) Removing sediment from reservoirs for more storage
h) Inter-basin water transfers.
Examples of Adaptation – Water Supply (continued)
• Adaptive management of existing water supply systems:
a) Change operating rules
b) Use conjunctive surface/groundwater supply
c) Physically integrate reservoir operation system
d) Coordinate supply/demand.
Water Supply Adaptation – Policy, Conservation, Technology
•
Domestic:
a) Municipal and in-home re-use
b) Leak repair
c) Rainwater collection for non-potable uses
d) Low flow appliances
e) Dual supply systems (potable and non-potable)
•
Agricultural:
a) Irrigation timing and efficiency
b) Lining of canals, closed conduits
c) Drainage re-use, use of wastewater effluent
d) High value/low water use crops
e) Drip, micro-spray, low-energy, precision application irrigation systems
f) Salt-tolerant crops that can use drain water.
Water Supply Adaptation – Policy, Conservation, Technology
•
Industrial:
a) Water re-use and recycling
b) Closed cycle and/or air cooling
c) More efficient hydropower turbines
d) Cooling ponds, wet towers and dry towers
•
Energy (hydropower):
a) Reservoir re-operation
b) Cogeneration (beneficial use of waste heat)
c) Additional reservoirs and hydropower stations
d) Low head run of the river hydropower
e) Market/price-driven transfers to other activities
f) Using water price to shift water use between sectors.
Water Problem Solving Approach
1.
Diagnosing:
i.
Identifying entry point
ii.
Identifying lead agency
iii.
Stakeholder analysis
iv.
Establishing a coordination and facilitation committee
v.
Situation analysis: Social including gender and poverty; economic;
environmental including ecosystem approach.
2.
Visioning:
i.
Problem tree analysis: Cause and effects of root problem
ii.
Objective Tree Analysis: Main cause is converted into objective of strategy
Identifying entry point.
Water Problem Solving Approach
3.
Strategising:
i.
Scenario development:
• A selection of possible development options: Framework identification; content
identification; strategy preparation.
4.
Planning:
i.
Plan preparation:
• Action plan and budget
• Responsibility matrix
• Scheduling
• Monitoring targets and indicators.
Water Problem Solving Approach
5.
Implementing:
i.
Preparation of workplans and budgets and general administrative and financial
management
ii.
Capacity development
iii.
Institutional strengthening
iv.
Strengthening the enabling environment: Recalibrating policy and legal
instruments for water resources management
v.
6.
Data collection.
Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E), and documentation:
i.
M&E using indicators
ii.
Documentation of lessons learned and best practices.
METHODS, TOOLS AND
DATA REQUIREMENTS
Key Elements of the Analysis
Which policy makers, planners, investors, implementers, water users,
affected stakeholders, researchers, civil societies should be involved?
The River System
Rivers, Watersheds and Aquifers
Water Use Sectors Issues
How might
climate change
development
influence water
demand and
supply?
What is the
current water
demand and
supply
situation?
How might
socio-economic
development
influence water
demand and
supply?
Fishery
Recreation
Navigation
How might socioeconomic and
climate change
development
influence water
demand and
supply?
Linking Supply with Demand Issues
What are
the
hydrologic
linkages?
What are the
current and
future
implications
of these
linkages?
Tools in Water Resource V&A Studies
• Hydrologic models (physical processes):
a) Simulate river basin hydrologic processes
b) Examples – water balance, rainfall –run-off, lake
simulation, stream water quality models
• Water resource models (physical and management):
a) Simulate current and future supply/demand of system
b) Operating rules and policies
c) Environmental impacts
d) Hydroelectric production
e) Decision support systems (DSS) for policy interaction.
Tools in Water Resource V&A Studies (continued)
• Economic models:
a) Macroeconomic:
 Multiple sectors of the economy
 General equilibrium – all markets are in equilibrium
b) Sectoral level:
 Single market or closely related markets
(e.g., agriculture)
c) Company level
 Farm-level model (linear programming approach)
 Microsimulation
Tools to Use for the Assessment: Referenced Water Models
• Planning:
a) WEAP21 (also hydrology)
b) Aquarius
c) SWAT
d) IRAS (Interactive River
and Aquifer Simulation)
e) RIBASIM
f) MIKE 21 and BASIN.
Referenced Water Models (continued)
•Operational and hydraulic:
•HEC
a)
HEC-HMS – event-based
rainfall-run-off (provides
input to HEC-RAS for doing
one-dimensional flood
inundation “mapping”)
b)
HEC-RAS – onedimensional steady and
unsteady flow
c)
HEC-ResSim – reservoir
operation modelling
•WaterWare
•RiverWare
•MIKE11
•Delft3d.
Current Focus – Planning and Hydrologic Implications of Climate Change
• Select models of interest (Deployed on PC;
extensive documentation; ease of use):
a) WEAP21
b) SWAT
c) HEC suite
d) Aquarius
Physical Hydrology and Water Management Models
• AQUARIS advantage:
Economic efficiency
criterion requiring the
reallocation of stream
flows until the net
marginal return in all
water uses is equal
• Cannot be climatically
driven.
Physical Hydrology and Water Management Models (continued)
SWAT management
decisions on water,
sediment, nutrient and
pesticide yields with
reasonable accuracy on
ungauged river basins.
Complex water quality
constituents.
• Rainfall –run-off, river
routing on a daily time
step.
Physical Hydrology and Water Management Models (continued)
WEAP21 advantage:
seamlessly integrating
watershed hydrologic
processes with water
resources management:
• Can be climatically
driven.
Physical Hydraulic Water Management Model
• HEC-HMS watershed
scale, event-based
hydrologic simulation, of
rainfall – run-off
processes:
a) Sub-daily rainfall –
run-off processes of
small catchments.
Overview WEAP21
•Hydrology and planning
•Planning (water distribution)
examples and exercises
•Adding hydrology to the model
•User interface
Data are organized in a tree
structure that you edit by rightclicking here.
Use the
View bar to
switch
between
your
analysis
and its
results.
You can create multiple scenarios and use
this box to switch between them.
Enter or edit
your data by
typing it
here.
•Scale
•Data requirements and
resources
•Calibration and validation
•Results
•Scenarios
•Licencing and registration
Your data
are shown
here as
either a
graph or a
table.
Hydrology Model
• Critical questions:
a) How does rainfall on a catchment translate into
flow in a river?
b) What pathways does water follow as it moves
through a catchment?
c) How does movement along these pathways impact
the magnitude, timing, duration, and frequency of
river flows?
Planning Model
• Critical questions:
a) How should water be allocated to various uses in time of
shortage?
b) How can these operations be constrained to protect the
services provided by the river?
c) How should infrastructure in the system (e.g., dams, diversion
works) be operated to achieve maximum benefit?
d) How will allocation, operations, and operating constraints
change if new management
strategies are introduced into
the system?
A Simple System with WEAP21
40
60
An Infrastructure Constraint
10 Unmet
30
70
A Regulatory Constraint
10 Unmet
30
70
Different Priorities
40
60
0
10 unmet
• For example, the
demands of large
farmers (70 units)
might be Priority 1 in
one scenario, whereas
the demands of
smallholders
(40 units) may be
Priority 1 in another.
Different Preferences
30
10
0
90
• For example, a centre
pivot operator may
prefer to take water
from a tributary
because of lower
pumping costs.
Example
• How much water
will the site with
70 units of demand
receive?
Example (continued)
• How much water
will be flowing in the
reach between the
Priority 2 diversion
and the Priority
1 return flow?
Example
(continued)
• What could we do
to ensure that this
reach does not go
dry?
What Are We Assuming?
•
We know the quantity of water flowing at the source
of each river
•
Water is flowing naturally into or out of the river
downstream
•
We know with certainty the water demands
•
Basically, that this system has been removed from its
hydologic context.
What Do We Do Now?
Add Hydrology
And this is the Climate Interface
Integrated Hydrology/Water Management Analytical Framework in WEAP21
Irrigation
City
The WEAP Two-Bucket Hydrology Module
P
Plant
Canopy
Et= f(z1,kc, , PET)
Pe = f(P, Snow Accum,
Melt rate)
u
z1
Rd
Sw =
Percolation
f(z1,ks,f)
L
Surface run-off =
f(Pe,z1,1/LAI)
Interflow =
f(z1,ks, 1-f)
Smax
z2
Dw
Baseflow =
f(z2,drainage_rate)
One Two-Bucket Model per Land Class
Some Comments
• The number of parameters in the model is fairly limited
and is at least related to the biophysical characteristics
of the catchment
• The irrigation routine includes an implicit notion of field
level irrigation efficiency
• Seepage can only pass from the lower bucket to the
river, not the other way.
This Last Point Leads to a Stylized Groundwater Representation
Percolation
Pumping
lw
Sy,Ks
hd
Some Comments
• The geometry of the aquifers in question is
representative, not absolute
• The stream stage is assumed to be invariant in this
module
• Although the “water table” can fluctuate, it ignores all
local fluctuations.
The WEAP21 Graphical User Interface
Use the
View bar to
switch
between
your data
and its
results.
Use the menu to do standard
functions such as creating
new areas and saving.
You can click and drag elements of the
water system from the legend onto the
schematic directly.
Languages:
Interface Only
English
GIS layers
can be
added here.
French
Chinese
Spanish
Your can
zoom your
schematic
in or out
by sliding
the bar
here.
The WEAP21 Graphical User Interface
Data are organized in a tree
structure that you edit by rightclicking here.
Use the
View bar to
switch
between
your
analysis
and its
results.
You can create multiple scenarios and use
this box to switch between them.
Enter or edit
your data by
typing it
here.
Your data
are shown
here as
either a
graph or a
table.
WEAP’s Temporal and Spatial Scale
• Time step: daily, weekly, monthly, etc.
• No routing, because all demands satisfied within the
current time step
• Time step at least as long as the residence time of
period of lowest flow
• Larger watersheds require longer time steps (e.g., one
month)
• Smaller watersheds can apply shorter time steps (e.g.,
1-day, 5-day, 10-day).
Some Ideas on Catchment Size
• Small: < 100 km2
• Medium: 100 to 1,000 km2
• Large: 1,000 to 10,000 km2
• Very large: 10,000 to 100,000 km2
Data Requirements
• Prescribed supply (riverflow given as fixed time series):
a) Time series data of riverflows (headflows)
b) River network (connectivity)
• Alternative supply via physical hydrology (watersheds
generate riverflow):
a) Watershed attributes
 Area, land cover . . .
b) Climate
 Precipitation, temperature, windspeed, and relative
humidity.
Data Requirements (continued)
• Water demand data:
a) Municipal and industrial demand:
 Aggregated by sector (manufacturing, tourism, etc.)
 Disaggregated by population (e.g., use/capita,
use/socio-economic group)
b) Agricultural demands:
 Aggregated by area (# hectares, annual wateruse/hectare)
 Disaggregated by crop water requirements
c) Ecosystem demands (in-stream flow requirements).
Example Data Resources
• AQUASTAT (Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations):
<http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm>
• UN-Water statistics:
<http://www.unwater.org/statistics.html>
• Global Hydrology Resource Centre (NASA):
<http://ghrc.msfc.nasa.gov/>
• Global run-off Data Centre (NASA):
<http://www.bafg.de/GRDC/EN/Home/homepage__node.html>
Calibration and Validation
•
Model evaluation criteria:
a) Flows along mainstream and tributaries
b) Reservoir storage and release
c) Water diversions from other basins
d) Agricultural water demand and delivery
e) Municipal and industrial water demands and
deliveries
f) Groundwater storage trends and levels.
Modelling Streamflow
Jun-99
Jun-97
Jun-95
Jun-93
Jun-91
Jun-89
Jun-87
Jun-85
Jun-83
Jun-81
Jun-79
Jun-77
Jun-75
Jun-73
Jun-71
Jun-69
Jun-67
Jun-65
Jun-63
Oct-99
Oct-97
Oct-95
Oct-93
Oct-91
Oct-89
Oct-87
Oct-85
Oct-83
Oct-81
Oct-79
Oct-77
Oct-75
Oct-73
Oct-71
Oct-69
Oct-67
Oct-65
Oct-63
Oct-61
Oct-59
Oct-57
Oct-55
Reservoir Storage
FOLSOM
1.20E+06
1.00E+06
8.00E+05
6.00E+05
OBS AF
4.00E+05
MOD AF
2.00E+05
0.00E+00
SHASTA
5.E+06
4.E+06
3.E+06
OBS AF
2.E+06
MOD AF
1.E+06
0.E+00
Looking at Results
Select results to be
viewed, including
which scenario here.
Change units
and subcategories of
results, and
change the
style of the
graph here.
Select values
for the y-axis
here.
WEAP21 – Developing Climate Change and Other Scenarios
• The scenario editor readily accommodates scenario
analysis for example:
a) Climate change scenarios and assumptions
b) Future demand assumptions
c) Future watershed development assumptions.
Licensing WEAP
• Go to <www.weap21.org> and register for a new licence
(free for government, university, and non-profit
organizations in developing countries)
• Register WEAP under Help menu and select “Register
WEAP”.
Adaptation Responses by Systems and Sectors
• Agriculture and food security, land use and forestry
• Human health
• Water supply and sanitation
• Settlements and infrastructure
• Economy: insurance, tourism, industry, transportation
• Gender.
Water Resource Adaptation in Agriculture and Food Security, Land Use and Forestry
• Adoption of varieties/species with increased resistance
to heat shock and drought
• Modification of irrigation techniques
• Adoption of water efficient technologies to “harvest”
water and conserve soil moisture
• Modification of crop calendars, i.e. timing or location of
cropping activities
• Implementation of seasonal climate forecasting.
Water Resource Adaptation in Human Health
• Malnutrition and water scarcity may be the most
important health consequences of climate change
• Health impact assessments often reveal the
opportunities to embed the health effects of any
adaptation strategy in the water sector, such as those
in water supply and sanitation.
Water Supply and Sanitation Adaptation
• Construction of new storage reservoirs
• Using alternative water sources, such as groundwater or
desalination
• Rainwater harvesting as well as controlled reuse
• Use of decentralized systems.
Water resource adaptation in settlements and infrastructure
• Adaptive responses are likely to be very expensive in
built up areas. Adaptation should be carefully
considered in the context of:
a) Settlements in high-risk locations, such as coastal
and riverine areas, due to flood and storm damage,
and water quality degradation as a result of saline
intrusion
b) Settlements whose economies are closely linked to
a climate-sensitive water-dependent activity, such as
irrigated agriculture or water-related tourism.
Examples of Adaptation – Water Supply
• Construction/modification of physical infrastructure:
a) Canal linings
b) Closed conduits instead of open channels
c) Integrating separate reservoirs into a single system
d) Reservoirs/mydroplants/delivery systems
e) Raising dam wall height
f) Increasing canal size
g) Removing sediment from reservoirs for more storage
h) Interbasin water transfers.
Examples of Adaptation – Water Supply (continued)
• Adaptive management of existing water supply systems:
a) Change operating rules
b) Use conjunctive surface/groundwater supply
c) Physically integrate reservoir operation system
d) Coordinate supply/demand.
Examples of Adaptation – Water Supply (continued)
• Policy, conservation, efficiency, and technology:
a) Domestic:
• Municipal and in-home re-use
• Leak repair
• Rainwater collection for non-potable uses
• Low flow appliances
• Dual supply systems (potable and non-potable)
b) Agricultural:
• Irrigation timing and efficiency
• Lining of canals, closed conduits
• Drainage re-use, use of wastewater effluent
• High value/low water use crops
• Drip, micro-spray, low-energy, precision application irrigation systems
• Salt-tolerant crops that can use drain water.
Examples of Adaptation – Water Supply (continued)
• Policy, conservation, efficiency, and technology (continued):
a) Industrial:
 Water re-use and recycling
 Closed cycle and/or air cooling
 More efficient hydropower turbines
 Cooling ponds, wet towers and dry towers
b) Energy (hydropower):
 Reservoir re-operation
 Cogeneration (beneficial use of waste heat)
 Additional reservoirs and hydropower stations
 Low head run of the river hydropower
 Market/price-driven transfers to other activities
 Using water price to shift water use between sectors.
REGIONAL EXAMPLES
THE CARIBBEAN
Climate Change Vulnerability
Mean Monthly Rainfall in the Caribbean
Examples of Rainfall Variability
Recent Drought Impacts in Selected Caribbean States
Projected Rainfall Changes in the Caribbean
EASTERN EUROPE
Changes in annual precipitation in Uzbekistan
Source: Eurasian Development Bank. 2009: The Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources
in Central Asia
Contribution of glacier to major rivers runoff
Source: Eurasian Development Bank. 2009: The Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources
in Central Asia
Challenges of decline river flow in Amu Darya
Hydrograph at Upper Amu Darya (Panji) River
Hydrograph at Lower Amu Darya River at Nukus
Source: UNEP. 2011: Environment and Security in the Amu Darya Basin
Mismatch of water supply and demand in the Amu Darya
Source: UNEP. 2011: Environment and Security in the Amu Darya Basin
Sarez Lake Level Fluctuations
Source: Tajikistan’s Second National Communication, 2008
Challenges of transboundary water management
Source: UNEP/GRID ARENDAL, April 2005
Temperature changes and variability in Uzbekistan
Changes in crop yields in Kapakalpastan
ASIA
Natural Hazards Affecting Cambodia Respondents
Source: Thou C. C. (2009)
Planning Horizon Plan for Cambodia Adaptation
Source: Thou C. C. (2009): Climate change impacts on water environment and adaptation option in Cambodia