Transcript Document

CHAPTER 31 ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
COUNTERFEIT
COOLING
In the global efforts to thwart climate change,
some lessons are learned after the fact.
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COUNTERFEIT COOLING
In the global efforts to thwart climate change,
some lessons are learned after the fact.
Environmental policies are
used to protect the natural
environment and public
health. Environmental
problems are complex and
often cross geopolitical
borders, requiring
compromises between various
groups of people.
Main
Concept
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COUNTERFEIT COOLING
In the global efforts to thwart climate change,
some lessons are learned after the fact.
At the end of this chapter, you will
know:
• Some major U.S. and international
environmental laws, how and why
they were established, and the
influence of lobbying groups
• How policies at the national and
international level are established
and why they are needed
• What tools are used to implement
and enforce policies
Learning Outcomes
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COUNTERFEIT COOLING
In the global efforts to thwart climate change,
some lessons are learned after the fact.
TERM TO KNOW:
Cap-and-trade
Background: On the surface, “carbon credits”
seemed like an effective way to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. Any company that
reduced its greenhouse gas emissions below
legislated levels could sell its remaining
allocation, generating more profit and
allowing other companies to contribute to
the reduction.
Unfortunately, some companies took
advantage of loopholes and overall
greenhouse gas emissions actually increased.
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Public policies aim to improve life at the social level.
TERMS TO KNOW:
Environmental policies
Transboundary problems
Adaptive management
Policies provide guidelines meant to
restore or protect the natural
environment. Some target repairing
damaged systems, others mitigate
human impacts, and others are
preventative.
Many environmental issues cross
geopolitical borders. In such cases,
many jurisdictions and policies may
be involved. Therefore, solutions are
complex and often the result of
compromises.
Systems and situations change, so
most policies must be adaptable and
flexible in their application.
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Public policies aim to improve life at the social level.
Many environmental events have far-reaching impacts.
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Public policies aim to improve life at the social level.
Many environmental events have far-reaching impacts.
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Public policies aim to improve life at the social level.
TERMS TO KNOW:
Performance standards
National Environmental
Policy Act (NEPA)
Environmental impact
statement (EIS)
Historically, policies were state level and reactive, not preventative. As the system
shifted to federal policies, they also became more proactive, working to limit impacts
rather than respond to them.
NEPA codified performance standards at a national level and mandated the federal
government to take environmental effects into account during decisions. EISs
mandated by NEPA report the likely environmental impact of a proposed action.
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Public policies aim to improve life at the social level.
The creation or revision of a public policy follows a specific protocol:
• Identification of the issue and consideration of the various options available
• Development of a course of action and monitoring
• Adoption and implementation of the policy and related actions
• Periodic evaluation and modification of the policy
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Public policies aim to improve life at the social level.
TERMS TO KNOW:
Citizen suit provision
Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA)
One provision of NEPA is the right of individuals to
demand and sue for compliance by a group or agency.
The EPA was established in 1970 to implement and
enforce federal environmental laws. The EPA also has
jurisdiction over state and corporate entities.
Unfortunately, the EPA influence does not extend into
international cases. The EPA has the authority to
mandate changes, potentially shut down facilities,
and levy fines.
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Public policies aim to improve life at the social level.
NEPA requires that the government consider environmental impact of any activity
or action and that an environmental assessment must be completed before any
action is taken.
The CAA was one of the first major pieces of resource legislation from the EPA.
The CAA sets standards regarding air pollutants in the air. While originally
targeting hazardous contaminants, it later extended to greenhouse gases.
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Public policies aim to improve life at the social level.
The CWA is another early piece of major environmental legislation. The CWA sets
standards for the presence of specific water pollutants.
The ESA is the “standard bearer” of environmental legislation. The legislative
origins of the ESA go back to the Lacey Act of 1900. The ESA provides protection
and the opportunity for recovery to endangered or threatened species in the
United States.
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Public policies aim to improve life at the social level.
TOSCA, while regulating the production and distribution of certain chemicals, also
allows for tracking of those materials. This may make it easier to determine the
source of some accidents or illegal disposals.
Superfund, or CERCLA, mandates that responsible parties are held responsible for
cleaning up contaminated locations and the costs related to the damages caused.
It also serves as a source of funds when responsible parties cannot be identified
or no longer exist.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
Environmental impacts do
not recognize geopolitical
borders, so what happens in
one region or country can
easily affect nearby areas.
For example, burning
agricultural fields can bring
air pollution to nearby
regions, as in this picture
showing smoke up against
the southern side of the
Himalayan range.
More than 500 international agreements regulate human activity as related to the
environment, such as the Montreal Protocol of 1987, which phased out ozonedepleting chemicals.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
TERMS TO KNOW:
Precautionary principle
Political lobbying
In best-case scenarios, the first step for a policy is
scientific investigation. Once an issue is noticed,
science and the law can work together to develop
policy recommendations. Statistics are used to
consider uncertainty where caution is needed to
balance current and potential future needs.
Legislators must also listen to all involved and
impacted by any potential change, both positively
and negatively. Large groups have professional
lobbyists to make their cases in an organized manner.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
Many different people, agencies, and political positions can affect the outcome of
policy decisions. Those that make the decisions must balance and compromise all
of these potentially opposing positions.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
TERMS TO KNOW:
Policy tools
Command and
control regulation
Green taxes
Subsidies
Lawmakers may use a variety of tools to enforce environmental policies:
• Legislative regulation that dictates when and how resources are utilized
• Green taxes in which the user pays based on the amount of pollution
produced or earns credits for reducing pollution
• Environmentally friendly actions that can be selected for with the use of
grants, subsidies, and low-interest loans
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
Major projects, such as the world’s largest solar power generation facility, are made
possible with the aid of government subsidies and loan guarantees.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
TERM TO KNOW:
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC)
A result of the 1992 Earth
Summit is the UNFCC,
which helped set the
stage for modern-era
global sustainable
development.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
TERM TO KNOW:
Kyoto Protocol
The 1997 Kyoto Protocol
continued the process
and set definite targets
and deadlines for
reduction of greenhouse
gas emissions. While the
objectives were easy,
there was significant
controversy as to how to
carry them out.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
TERM TO KNOW:
Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
Reduction in greenhouse gases was
based on 1990 baseline amounts.
Those countries that had higher levels
had to accept greater reductions.
CDM utilized “carbon credits” that
could be traded on the open market.
Many claimed this was unfair and
gave too much of an advantage to
developing countries such as China
and India. The United States has not
ratified it and others (such as Canada)
have since withdrawn.
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
Organizing and gathering data in the early stages of the greenhouse gas situation
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A variety of policy tools have been used
to address climate change.
The Kyoto Accord relies on voluntary compliance to reduce greenhouse emissions.
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Policies sometimes have unintended consequences.
The six greenhouse gases addressed in the Kyoto Protocol are carbon dioxide,
methane, nitrous oxide, hydroflourocarbons, perflourocarbons, and sulfur
hexaflouride. Since carbon dioxide is the most prominent of the six, all calculations
are based on carbon equivalents.
The U.K. and Germany
both met their reduction
goals early. The United
States monitored and
worked to reduce
emissions. While the
United States did not meet
the target, reductions
began to show between
2006 and 2010.
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Policies sometimes have unintended consequences.
TERM TO KNOW:
Corporate average fuel efficiency (CAFE) standards
One target of the U.S. attempts to reduce emissions is to increase the fuel efficiency
in its motor fleet. In accordance to CAFE standards, the average miles per gallon of
the U.S. fleet will double, from 27.3 to 54.5 mpg by 2025.
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Policies sometimes have unintended consequences.
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Policies sometimes have unintended consequences.
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Policies sometimes have unintended consequences.
Refrigerants are so environmentally
damaging that coolant factories in
India and China had higher profits
from producing and destroying
coolant, earning carbon credits that
could be sold, than actually selling
the coolant.
Nearly half of the credits have been
given to just 19 companies,
primarily in India and China. The
countries that were initially
expected to benefit most saw little
or no benefit.
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Adapting policies is necessary but difficult.
The CDM problems illustrate the need to be able to revise
and modify policies as new information is uncovered or
experience demonstrates the current policy is insufficient.
• Since most carbon dioxide is from the energy sector,
should the program be limited to that industry?
• Should natural gas power plants be excluded since they
produce less carbon dioxide than coal fired plants?
The value of the carbon credits allowed a shift in the
economic influence in global politics. Those benefiting
from the CDM did not want any changes.
The European Union and the UN changed parts of the CDM
policy in 2010. No new factories would be allowed to
participate, the value of the credits for the refrigerant was
drastically reduced, and the EU and UN will not accept the
HFC-23 credits. Will that fix the problem?
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PERSONAL CHOICES THAT HELP
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UNDERSTANDING THE ISSUE
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ANALYZING THE SCIENCE
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EVALUATING NEW INFORMATION
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MAKING CONNECTIONS