Transcript NVCC Bio 212

Review slides
Lecture Exam 3
1
Overview of the Endocrine System
The endocrine system consists of
- collections of cells located in tissues scattered throughout the body
- that produce substances released into the blood (hormones)
- to ultimately affect the activity and metabolism of target cells.
Secrete into
Affect activity
Endocrine glands
Blood
Inside cells
Exocrine glands
Ducts or on to free surface
Outside cells
2
Classification of Hormones
Amino acids
Amino Acid
Derivatives
Peptides
Proteins, glycoproteins
Hormones
Steroids (cholesterol-derived)
Eicosanoids (cell membranes)
Lipid
Derived
(locally acting)
3
Actions of Steroid Hormones
• hormone crosses membranes
• hormone combines with
receptor in nucleus or
cytoplasm
• synthesis of mRNA
activated
• mRNA enters cytoplasm to
direct synthesis of protein, e.g.,
aldosterone->Na/K Pump
(Thyroid hormone has a similar
mechanism of action, even
though it is a tyrosine derivative)
Magnitude of cellular response proportional to the number
of hormone-receptor complexes formed
4
Actions of Amino Acid-Derived Hormones
• hormone (first messenger) binds
to receptor on cell membrane
• adenylate cyclase activated
• ATP converted to cAMP
• cAMP (second messenger)
promotes a series of reactions
leading to cellular changes
Magnitude of response is not directly proportional to the
number of hormone-receptor complexes – it’s amplified
5
Control of Hormonal Secretions
• primarily controlled by negative feedback mechanism
1) Hormonal
2) Neural
3) Humoral
6
Control mechanisms for hormone release
Target Cell Activation By Hormones
• Target cells must have specific receptors to
be activated by hormones
• Magnitude of target cell activation depends
upon
– Blood levels of the hormone
• Rate of release from producing organ
• Rate of degradation (target cells, kidney, liver)
• Half-life
– Relative numbers of receptors for the hormone
• Cellular receptors can be up- or down-regulated
– Affinity (strength) of binding of the hormone to its
receptor
7
Pituitary Gland Control
• Hypothalamic
releasing hormones
stimulate cells of
anterior pituitary
(adenohypophysis) to
release their hormones
• Nerve impulses from
hypothalamus
stimulate nerve
endings in the posterior
pituitary
(neurohypophysis)
gland to release its
hormones
Note the hypophyseal portal system of the adenohypophysis
(two capillaries in series)
8
Hormones of the Anterior Pituitary (SeT GAP)
(an ‘axis’)
Tropic hormones control the activity of other endocrine glands
All anterior pituitary hormones use second messengers
9
Overview of the Pituitary Hormones
Figure from: Martini,
Anatomy & Physiology,
Prentice Hall, 2001
All anterior
and posterior
pituitary
hormones bind
to membrane
receptors and
use 2nd
messengers
(cAMP)
SeT GAP
10
Hormone Summary Table I
Tissue
Origin
Destination
Action on Target Tissue
Control of Release1
anterior
pituitary
males: semiiferous
tubules of testes;
females: ovarian
follicle
males: sperm production
females: follicle/ovum maturation
Gonadotropin Releasing
Hormone (GnRH)
LUETINIZING
HORMONE (LH)
anterior
pituitary
In males: interstitial
cells in testes;
in females: mature
ovarian follicle
males: testosterone secretion
females: ovulation
Gonadotropin Releasing
Hormone (GnRH)
T
THYROID
STIMULATING
HORMONE (TSH)
anterior
pituitary
thyroid
secrete hormones
Thyrotropin Releasing
Hormone (TRH)
G
GROWTH
HORMONE (GH)
anterior
pituitary
bone, muscle, fat
growth of tissues
Growth Hormone Rleasing
Hormone (GHRH)
A
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIC HORMONE
(ACTH)
anterior
pituitary
adrenal cortex
secrete adrenal hormones
Corticotropin Releasing
Hormone (CRH)
P
PROLACTIN (PRL)
anterior
pituitary
mammary glands
produce milk
Prolactin Releasing Hormone
(PRH)
ANTI-DIURETIC
HORMONE (ADH)
(VASOPRESSIN)
posterior
pituitary
distal convoluted
tubule (DCT)
reabsorption of water; increases blood
pressure
increase in osmolarity of
plasma or a decrease in blood
volume
OXYTOCIN (OT)
posterior
pituitary
uterine smooth
muscle; breast
contraction during labor; milk letdown
Stretching of uterus; infant
suckling
Name
FOLLICLE
STIMULATING
HORMONE (FSH)
Se(x)
11
Hormone Summary Table II
Tissue
Name
Origin
Destination
Action on Target Tissue
Control of Release
TRIIODOTHYRONINE
(T3) & THYROXINE
(T4)
Thyroid (follicular
cells)
all cells
increases rate of metabolism (BMR)
Thyroid Stimulating Hormone
(TSH)
Thyroid (C cells)
Intestine, bone,
kidney
Decreases plasma [Ca2+]
( intestinal absorp of Ca;  action of
osteoclasts;  excretion of Ca by kidney
 plasma [Ca2+]
Parathyroids
Intestine, bone,
kidney
Increases plasma [Ca2+]
( intestinal absorp of Ca;  action of
osteoclasts;  excretion of Ca by kidney
 plasma [Ca2+]
cardiac muscle,
arteriole and
bronchiole smooth
muscle,
diaphragm, etc
increases heart rate and blood pressure...
(fight or flight)
Sympathetic Nervous System
CALCITONIN
PARATHYROID
HORMONE (PTH)
EPINEPHRINE/
NOREPINEPHRINE
(Catecholamines)
Adrenal Medulla
ALDOSTERONE
(Mineralocorticoids)
Adrenal Cortex
Kidneys; sweat
glands; salivary
glands; pancreas
reabsorption of water and Na (increases blood
pressure) and excretion of K
(mineralocorticoid)
Angiotensin II
 plasma [Na+]
 plasma [K+]
CORTISOL
(Glucocorticoids)
Adrenal Cortex
all cells
Diabetogenic; anti-inflammatory
(glucocorticoid)
ACTH
INSULIN
β-cells of
Pancreatic Islets
all cells, liver and
skeletal muscle
pushes glucose into cells from blood, glycogen
formation (decreases blood glucose)
 plasma [glucose]
SNS
GLUCAGON
α-cells of
pancreatic Islets
liver and skeletal
muscle
breakdown of glycogen (increase in blood
glucose)
 plasma [glucose]
TESTOSTERONE
Testes
secondary sex
organs
development and maintenance
LH
ESTROGEN
Ovaries
secondary sex
organs
development at puberty and maintenance
throughout life
LH
NATRIURETIC
PEPTIDES
atria and ventricles
of heart
increased excretion of sodium and water from
kidneys,  blood volume,  blood pressure
Stretching of atria and ventricles
adrenal cortex,
kidneys
12
Renin-angiotensin Pathway
13
Stress
Types of Stress
• physical stress
• psychological
(emotional) stress
(Stress is any condition,
physical or emotional, that
threatens homeostasis)
Stress Response (General
Adaptation Syndrome [GAS])
• hypothalamus triggers
sympathetic impulses to
various organs
• epinephrine is released
• cortisol is released to
promote longer-term
responses
Three general phases of the GAS
to stress ARE:
• Alarm phase
• Resistance phase
• Exhaustion phase
14
Responses to Stress
Exhaustion
-  lipid reserves
-  production of glucocorticoids
- electrolyte imbalance
- damage to vital organs
15
Diabetes (= Overflow)
• Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
– Hyposecretion or hypoactivity of insulin
– Three P’s of Diabetes Mellitus (mellitum = honey)
• Polyuria (increased urination)
• Polydipsia (increased thirst)
• Polyphagia (increased hunger)
– Hyperglycemia, ketonuria, glycosuria
• Renal Glycosuria
– excretion of glucose in the urine in detectable amounts
– normal blood glucose concentrations or absence of
hyperglycemia
• Diabetes Insipidus (insipidus = tasteless)
– Hyposecretion or hypoactivity of ADH
– Polyuria
– Polydipsia
16
Functions of the Kidneys
• Make urine
• Regulate blood volume and blood pressure
• Regulate plasma concentrations of Na+, K+,
Cl-, HCO3-, and other ions
• Help to stabilize blood pH
• Conserve valuable nutrients
• Assist the liver in detoxification and
deamination
17
Anatomical Features of Kidneys
Kidneys are retroperitoneal
Helps
maintain
position of
kidney
Figure from: Martini, Anatomy & Physiology, Prentice
Hall, 2001
18
Location of Kidneys
Figure from: Martini, Anatomy &
Physiology, Prentice Hall, 2001
Located
retroperitoneally
from T12 to L3
Left kidney is
slightly higher
than right kidney
Adrenal glands sit
on the medial and
superior part of
kidneys
Nephro(s) = kidney
Pyel(o) = pelvis
19
The Nephron
(80%)
Vasa recta are associated
with juxtamedullary
nephrons
(20%)
Nephrons are
the structural
and functional
units of the
kidney
Sympathetic nerve fibers from the ANS
innervate the kidney
20
Blood Flow Through Kidney and Nephron
Know
this!
21
Renal Corpuscle (Glomerulus + Capsule)
Efferent
arteriole is
smaller than the
afferent arteriole
Filtrate
in
capsular
space
This creates a
high pressure
(~55-60 mm Hg)
in the
glomerular
capillary bed
Podocytes form the visceral layer of the glomerular capsule. Their
pedicels (foot processes) form filtration slits (or slit pores) that
function in forming filtrate.
22
The Nephron
1. Glomerular capsule
2. PCT – simple
cuboidal with a brush
border
(DCT)
3. Thin segment of the
descending nephron
loop - simple squamous
epithelium
4. Thick ascending
nephron loop cuboidal/low columnar
(PCT)
The order of the
parts of the nephron
is important to know
5. DCT - simple
cuboidal with no
microvilli (specialized
for secretion, not
23
absorption)
Juxtaglomerular Apparatus
Juxtaglomerular
cells (JG) - modified
smooth muscle cells
in the wall of the
afferent arteriole
that contract (and
secrete renin)
Cells of the macula
densa (MD) are
osmoreceptors
responding to solute
concentration of
filtrate
MD + JG cells =
juxtaglomerular
apparatus
24
Glomerular Filtrate and Urine Composition
(1.8 L/day)
Glomerular filtrate is about the same composition as plasma: H2O, glucose,
amino acids, urea, uric acid, creatine, creatinine, Na, Cl, K, HCO3-, PO43-,
SO42-. But notice how different the composition of urine is. Additionally, note25
that protein is not normally present in urine.
Urine Formation
Fluid from plasma passes into the glomerular capsule and becomes filtrate at an
average rate of 125 ml/minute. This is known as the Glomerular Filtration Rate
(GFR)
• Glomerular Filtration (GF) *Adds to volume of urine produced
• substances move from blood to glomerular capsule
• Tubular Reabsorption (TR) *Subtracts from volume of urine produced
• substances move from renal tubules into blood of peritubular
capillaries
• glucose, water, urea, proteins, creatine
• amino, lactic, citric, and uric acids
• phosphate, sulfate, calcium, potassium, and sodium ions
• Tubular Secretion (TS) *Adds to volume of urine produced
• substances move from blood of peritubular capillaries into renal
tubules
• drugs and ions, urea, uric acid, H+
 Urine formation = GF + TS - TR
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Glomerular Filtration
Glomerular filtrate is
plasma that passes
through
1) the fenestrae of the
capillary endothelium,
2) the basement
membrane around the
endothelium, and
3) the filtration slits
(slit pores) of the
pedicels
This is called the
‘filtration membrane’
Glomerular filtration is a mechanical process based primarily on molecule size27
Glomerular Filtration and Urine Formation
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) is directly
proportional to the net filtration pressure
GFR  125 ml/min (180 L/day)
Urine output is only 0.6 – 2.5 L per day (an
average of about 1.8 L, or about 1% of
glomerular filtrate)
99% of
filtrate is
reabsorbed!!
NFP
* Blood pressure is the most important factor
altering the glomerular hydrostatic pressure
(and NFP).
A MAP fall of 10% will severely impair
glomerular filtration; a fall of 15-20% will
stop it.
=
HPg
–
(HPc + OPg)
Net Filtration Pressure = force favoring filtration – forces opposing filtration
(*glomerular capillary
( capsular hydrostatic pressure
hydrostatic pressure)
+ glomerular capillary
osmotic pressure )
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Summary of Factors Affecting GFR
Factor
Effect
Vasoconstriction
Afferent arteriole (Δ radius  GFR)
 GFR
Efferent arteriole (Δ radius  1/GFR)
↑ GFR
Vasodilation
Afferent arteriole
↑ GFR
Efferent arteriole
 GFR
Increased capillary hydrostatic pressure
↑ GFR
Increased colloid osmotic pressure
 GFR
Increased capsular hydrostatic pressure
 GFR
Know this table – it’s important!
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Three Major Ways of Regulating GFR
1) Autoregulation
– Maintains GFR despite changes in local blood pressure and
blood flow (between 90 – 180 mm Hg mean systemic
pressure)
– Myogenic (muscular) mechanism – contraction of afferent
arteriolar vascular smooth muscle when stretched (increased
BP); relaxation occurs when BP declines
– Tubuloglomerular mechanism – MD cells detect  flow rate
and/or  osmolarity of filtrate in DCT -> JG cells contract ->
afferent arteriole constricts ->  GFR
30
Three Major Ways of Regulating GFR
2) Neural (Autonomic) Regulation
– Mostly sympathetic postganglionic fibers =
vasoconstriction of afferent arterioles  GFR
(conserves water, redirects blood to other organs)
– Stimulates juxtaglomerular apparatus to secrete renin
– May override autoregulatory mechanism at afferent
arteriole
3) Hormonal Regulation
– Renin-angiotensin system –  ECF volume and BP
– Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) - ↑ GFR, ↑ fluid loss
(dilates afferent arteriole, constricts efferent arteriole)
31
Renin-Angiotensin System
Renin is released by the
juxtaglomerular
apparatus due to:
1) Decline of BP
(Renin  1/Pressure)
(ACE)
Actions of Angiotensin II
2) Juxtaglomerular
stimulation by
sympathethic NS
3) Decline in osmotic
concentration of
tubular fluid at
macula densa
( Renin  1/[NaCl] )
Stabilizes systemic blood pressure and extracellular fluid volume32
Tubular Reabsorption in PCT
65% of
filtrate
volume is
reabsorbed
in the PCT
8 mm Hg
 COP
Tubular fluid
Tubular reabsorption - reclaiming of substances in filtrate by body (tubule  blood)
Peritubular cap: 1) Low hydrostatic pressure 2) High COP 3) High permeability
All uric acid, about 50% of urea, and no creatinine is reabsorbed
Renal threshold is the plasma level (concentration) above which a
particular solute will appear in urine, e.g., 180 mg/dl
33
Summary of Reabsorption and Secretion
Nephron Loop (of Henle)
Process
PCT
Reabsorption
Glucose,
aa, protein,
urea,
uric acid,
Na+, Cl-,
HCO3-
Secretion
Creatinine
H+
Some
drugs
Descending
H2O
Urea
Ascending
Na+/Cl-,
K+
(NO H2O)
-
DCT
Collecting duct
Na+/ClH2 O
HCO3-
H2O (only if
ADH is present),
urea
H+/K+
NH4+
-
34
Reabsorption in the PCT
Substance
Mechanism of
Reabsorption
Notes
Na+ (Cl-)
Primary Active Transport
Na+ reabsorption is the
driving force for most other
reabsorption
H2O
Osmosis
Closely associated with
movement of Na+
(Obligatory water
reabsorption)
Glucose
Secondary Active transport
Limited # of molecules can
be handled
(Tm = 375 mg/min);
attracts H20
Amino Acids
Secondary Active transport
Three different active
transport modalities; difficult
to overwhelm
Other electrolytes
Secondary Active transport
35
Secretion in the PCT and DCT
In the DCT potassium ions or hydrogen ions may be secreted in
exchange for reabsorbed sodium ions. Reabsorption of Na+ in the
DCT is increased by the hormone, aldosterone.
Other compounds are actively secreted as well, e.g., histamine,
ammonia, creatinine, penicillin, phenobarbital.
Active
Active and
Passive
36
Summary of Events in the Nephron
(Aldosterone)
(Aldosterone)
1.
Filtrate produced
2.
Reabsorption of 65%
of filtrate
3.
Obligatory water
reabsorption
4.
Reabsorption of Na+
and Cl- by active
transport (NO H2O
reabsorption)
5,6. Facultative
reabsorption of
water (ADH is
needed)
7. Absorption of solutes
and water by vasa
recta to maintain 37
osmotic gradient
The Countercurrent Multiplier
Approximate normal
osmolarity of body fluids
The mechanism shown
is called the
“countercurrent
multiplier”
Reduced
osmolarity of
tubular fluid
due to action
of countercurrent
multiplier
Countercurrent
multiplier allows the
kidneys to vary the
concentration of urine
Vasa recta maintains
the osmotic gradient of
the renal medulla so
the countercurrent
multiplier can work
Figure from:
Martini,
Anatomy &
Physiology,
Prentice Hall,
2001
38
Urea,Uric Acid, and Diuretics
Urea
• product of amino acid
catabolism
• plasma concentration reflects
the amount or protein in diet
• enters renal tubules through
glomerular filtration
• 50% reabsorbed
• rest is excreted
Uric Acid
• product of nucleic acid
metabolism
• enters renal tubules
through glomerular filtration
• 100% of filtered uric acid is
reabsorbed
• 10% secreted and excreted
A diuretic promotes the loss of water in the urine.
Anything that adds more solute to tubular fluid
will attract H2O and can function as a diuretic to
increase the volume of urine, e.g., glucose
(osmotic diuretic)
39
Urine
• Urine composition varies depending upon
– Diet
– Level of activity
• Major constituents of urine
–
–
–
–
–
–
H2O (95%)
Creatinine (remember, NONE of this is reabsorbed)
Urea (most abundant solute), uric acid
Trace amounts of amino acids
Electrolytes
Urochrome (yellow color), urobilin, trace of bilirubin
• Normal urine output is 0.6-2.5 L/day (25-100 ml/hr)
• Output below about 25 ml/hour = kidney failure
(oliguria -> anuria)
40
Terms to know…
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Anuria – absence of urine
Diuresis – increased production of urine
Dysuria – difficult or painful urination
Enuresis – uncontrolled (involuntary) urination
Glycosuria (glucosuria) – glucose in the urine
Hematuria – blood in the urine
Oliguria – scanty output of urine
Polyuria – excessive urine output
41
Elimination of Urine
Flow of Urine
• nephrons
• collecting ducts
• renal papillae
• minor and major calyces
• renal pelvis
• ureters
• urinary bladder
• urethra
• outside world
Know this…
42
Ureters and Urinary Bladder
Urinary elimination system is lined mostly by transitional epithelium
Ureters
- retroperitoneal tubes about 25 cm long
- carry urine from kidneys to bladder by peristaltic contractions
Urinary bladder (cyst[o]) - temporary storage reservoir for urine
Smooth muscular layer runs in
all directions (detrusor muscle)
under parasympathetic control.
Contraction compresses the
bladder and causes urine to
flow into urethra
Internal sphincter is
thickening of detrusor muscle
at neck of bladder – closed
when detrusor is relaxed;
open when detrusor contracts
43
Urethra
Note the short urethra in
females (about 4 cm)
Note the long male urethra
(about 18-20 cm). There are
three sections to the male
urethra:
- Prostatic urethra
- Membranous urethra
- Penile urethra
Figure from: Saladin,
Anatomy & Physiology,
McGraw Hill, 2007
44
Micturition (Urination) Reflex
Figure from: Saladin, Anatomy
& Physiology, McGraw Hill,
2007
45
Fluid and Body Compartments
About 40 L of fluid (avg.
adult male; less in females
due to greater proportion
of body fat)
Major forces affecting
movement of fluid
between compartments:
1) Hydrostatic pressure
2) Osmotic pressure
(ICF)
 25L
(ECF)
 15L
‘Compartments’ commonly behave as distinct entities in terms of ion
distribution, but ICF and ECF osmotic concentrations (about 290 mOsm/L)
are identical. This is because H2O is free to flow between compartments
and any disturbance in osmolarity is quickly corrected by H2O movement.
46
Body Fluid Ionic Composition
ECF major ions:
- sodium, chloride, and
bicarbonate
ICF major ions:
- potassium, magnesium,
and phosphate (plus
negatively charged proteins)
You should know these
chemical symbols and
charges of ions
47
Fluid (Water) Balance
Balance;
=
* urine production is the most important regulator of
water balance (water in = water out)
48
Major Regulators of H2O Intake and Output
• Regulation of water intake
• increase in osmotic pressure of ECF → osmoreceptors in
hypothalamic thirst center → stimulates thirst and
drinking
• Regulation of water output
• Obligatory water losses (must happen)
• insensible water losses (lungs, skin)
• water loss in feces
• water loss in urine (min about 500 ml/day)
• increase in osmotic pressure of ECF → ADH is released
• concentrated urine is excreted
• more water is retained
• LARGE changes in blood vol/pressure → Renin and
ADH release
49
Dehydration and Overhydration
Dehydration
• osmotic pressure
increases in extracellular
fluids
• water moves out of cells
• osmoreceptors in
hypothalamus stimulated
• hypothalamus signals
posterior pituitary to
release ADH
• urine output decreases
Severe thirst, wrinkling of skin,
fall in plasma volume and
decreased blood pressure,
circulatory shock, death
Overhydration
• osmotic pressure
decreases in extracellular
fluids
• water moves into cells
• osmoreceptors inhibited
in hypothalamus
• hypothalamus signals
posterior pituitary to
decrease ADH output
• urine output increases
‘Drunken’ behavior (water
intoxication), confusion,
hallucinations, convulsions,
coma, death
50
Osmolarity and Milliequivalents (mEq)
• Recall that osmolarity expresses total solute
concentration of a solution
– Osmolarity (effect on H2O) of body solutions is determined
by the total number of dissolved particles (regardless of
where they came from)
– The term ‘osmole’ reflects the number of particles yielded
by a particular solute (milliosmole, mOsm, = osmole/1000)
• 1 mole of glucose (180g/mol) -> 1 osmole of particles
• 1 mole of NaCl (58g/mol) -> 2 osmoles of particles
• An equivalent is the positive or negative charge equal
to the amount of charge in one mole of H+
– A milliequivalent (mEq) is one-thousandth of an Eq
– Used to express the concentration of CHARGED particles in
a solution
51
Electrolyte Balance
Electrolyte balance is important because:
1.
It regulates fluid (water) balance
2.
Concentrations of individual electrolytes can affect cellular functions
Electrolyte
Normal plasma
concentration
(mEq/L)
Na+
140
1. Renin-angiotensin pathway
2. Aldosterone (Angiontensin II, Na+, K+)
3. Natriuretic peptides
Cl-
105
Follows Na+
K+
4.0
1. Secretion at DCT (aldosterone sensitive)
Ca2+
5.0
1. Calcitonin (children mainly)
2. Parathyroid hormone
3. Vitamin D (dietary uptake from intestines)
Major mechanism(s) regulating
retention and loss
52
Summary Table of Fluid and Electrolyte Balance
Condition
Initial Change
 H2O in the ECF
Change in
OSMOLARITY
(**Corrected by change
in H2O levels)
 H2O in the ECF
 H2O/Na+ in the ECF
Initial Effect
Correction
 Na+ concentration,
 Thirst →  H2O intake
 ECF osmolarity
 ADH →  H2O output
 Na+ concentration,
 Thirst →  H2O intake
 ECF osmolarity
 ADH →  H2O output
 volume,
 BP
Change in VOLUME
(**Corrected by change
in Na+ levels)
 H2O/Na+ in the ECF
 volume,
 BP
Renin-angiotensin:
 Thirst
 ADH
 aldosterone
 vasoconstriction
Natriuretic peptides:
 Thirst
 ADH
 aldosterone
You should understand this table
Result
 H2O in the ECF
 H2O in the ECF
 H2O intake
 Na+/H2O reabsorption
 H2O loss
 H2O intake
 Na+/H2O reabsorption
 H2O loss
53
Acid/Base Buffers
A buffer resists changes in pH
Buffer
Chemical
Type
Physical
(first line
of defense)
Speed
Seconds
Respiratory
Physiological
Minutes
Renal
Physiological
Hours Days
Eliminate H+
from body?
No
Yes
(indirectly as
CO2)
Yes
Examples
Bicarbonate, phoshate,
proteins (ICF, plasma
proteins, Hb)
H2O + CO2   H+ + HCO3-
H+ excretion
HCO3- excretion/retention*
*Normal plasma [HCO3-] ≈ 25 mEq/L
54
Acidosis and Alkalosis
If the pH of arterial blood drops to 6.8 or rises to 8.0 for more than a few
hours, survival is jeopardized
Classified according to:
1. Whether the cause is
respiratory (CO2),
or metabolic (other
acids, bases)
2. Whether the blood
pH is acid or
alkaline
Respiratory system compensates for metabolic acidosis/alkalosis
Renal system compensates for respiratory acidosis/alkalosis
55