Transcript Chapter 04

Chapter 4: Preventing
Injuries Through Fitness
Training
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Fitness is critical for performance and
injury prevention
• Improper conditioning is a major cause in
sports related injuries
• Areas of concern:
– Flexibility
– Muscular strength, endurance, power
– Cardiorespiratory endurance
• Coaches need to develop programs that
focus on injury prevention and performance
enhancement
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Periodization in Training and
Conditioning
• Traditional seasons no longer exist for
serious athletes
• Periodization
–
–
–
–
Achieve peak performance
Decrease injuries and overtraining
Program that spans various seasons
Modify program relative to athlete’s needs
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Year Round Training Cycle
• Complete training cycle
• Seasonal approach based on preseason, inseason, and off-season
• Changes in intensity, volume, specificity of
training occur in order to achieve peak
levels of fitness for competition
• Broken into periods or phases (lasting
weeks or months)
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Periods or Phases
• Transition period:
– Follows last competition (early off-season)
– Unstructured (escape rigors of training)
• Preparatory period:
– Off-season
– Hypertropy/endurance phase (Low intensity
with high volume)
• Allows for development of endurance base
• Lasts several weeks to 2 months
– Strength Phase
– Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Preparatory period (continued)
– Strength Phase
• Intensity and volume increase to moderate levels
– Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)
• Volume is decreased to allow adequate recovery
• Competition period:
– May last a < week or several months for
seasonal sports
– High intensity, low volume, skill training
sessions
– May incorporate weekly training cycles (1-7
days)
• Designed to ensure peak on days of competition
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cross Training
• Training for a sport with substitutions of
alternative activities (carryover value)
• Useful in transition and preparatory periods
• Variety to training regimen
• Should be discontinued prior to preseason
as it is not sport-specific
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Principles of Conditioning and
Training
• Warm-up/Cool-down
• Motivation
• Overload and SAID
principle
• Intensity
• Specificity
• Individuality
• Consistency/routine
• Relaxation/Minimize
Stress
• Progression
• Safety
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Warm-up
• Precaution against unnecessary musculoskeletal
injury and soreness
• May enhance certain aspects of performance
• Prepares body physiologically for physical work
• Stimulates cardiorespiratory system, enhancing
circulation and blood flow to muscles
• Increases metabolic processes, core temperature,
and muscle elasticity
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
General
– Activities which bring a general warming to the
body(break a sweat)
– Not related to sport
Specific
– Specific to sport
– Stretching, jogging, running, throwing,
catching
Should last 10-15 minutes resulting in effects
that will last 45 minutes
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cool-down
•
•
•
•
•
Essential component of workout
Bring body back to resting state
5-10 minutes in duration
Often ignored
Decreased muscle soreness following
training if time used to stretch after workout
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Why is it important to have
good flexibility?
• Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through
a full range of motion (ROM)
• Decreased ROM results in:
– Decreased performance capabilities
– Uncoordinated/awkward movements
– Predisposes athlete to injury
• Good flexibility is essential for successful
physical performance
• Recommended by athletic trainers to
prevent injury
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Factors That Limit Flexibility
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Bony structures
Tissue approximation
Excessive fat
Muscle and tendon lengths
Connective tissue
Scarring and contractures
Skin
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Range of Motion
(ROM)
Active range of motion = dynamic flexibility
– Ability to move a joint with little resistance
• Passive range of motion = static flexibility
– Motion of joint to end points without muscle
contraction
• Must be able to move through unrestricted range
• Must have elasticity for additional stretch
encountered during activity
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Agonist vs. Antagonist Muscles
• Joints are capable of multiple movements
• Example:
– Quadriceps will extend knee with contraction
– Hamstrings will stretch during extension
– Quads (muscle producing movement) referred
to as agonist
– Muscle undergoing stretch referred to as
antagonist
– Agonist and antagonist work together to
produce smooth coordinated movements
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Stretching Techniques
Ballistic
– Bouncing movement in which repetitive
contractions of agonist work to stretch
antagonist muscle
– While effective in improving flexibility, caution
should be exercised
– Possible soreness (soccer example)
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Static stretching
– Passively stretching
– 20-30 second hold = optimal
– Go to point of pain and back off and hold for 30
seconds (3 to 4 times)
– Controlled, less chance of injury
– Not dynamic
– Should precede ballistic stretching
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Physical therapy for neuromuscular paralysis
Slow-reversal-hold-relax
Contract-relax
Hold-relax
Ten second push, ten second relax
Best technique to improve flexibility
Technique that involves combination of
alternating contractions and relaxation of both
agonist and antagonists
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Assessment of Flexibility
• Various devices have been designed to
accommodate joint sizes and complexities
of movement
• Goniometer most widely used device
• Can also utilize the following tests:
– Trunk hip flexion test
– Trunk extension test
– Shoulder extension test
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Is there a relationship between
strength and flexibility?
• Co-exist
• Muscle bound = zero flexibility
• Strength training will provide individual
with ability to develop dynamic flexibility
through full range of motion
• Develop more powerful and coordinated
movements
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Flexibility, Muscular
Strength, Endurance,
and Power
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Muscle Strength, Power, and
Endurance
Strength: ability to generate force against
resistance
Muscular endurance: repetitive muscular
contractions (increase strength = increase
endurance
Power: the relationship between strength and
time
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Muscle Contractions
• Isometric contraction
– No length change occurs during contraction
• Isotonic contraction
– Concentric- shortening of muscle with contraction
in an effort to overcome more resistance
– Eccentric - lengthening of muscle with contraction
because load is greater than force being produced
– Both are considered dynamic movements
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Factors that Determine Levels
of Muscular Strength
• Size of muscle:
– Function of diameter and of muscle fibers
– Hypertrophy vs. Atrophy
• Number of muscle fibers
• Neuromuscular efficiency
– Initial gains are due to increased efficiency
• More effectively engage specific motor units
• Biomechanical factors
– Bones and muscles = Levers and pulleys
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Fast-Twitch vs. Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers
• Motor units with distinct metabolic and
contractile capability
Individual make-up
– Muscles contain both types of fibers
– Muscle functioning impacts ratios (postural vs.
powerful movement)
– Genetically determined
• Slow twitch (Type I):
– Generally major constituent of postural muscles
• Fast twitch (Type II)
– High force in short amount of time
– Produce powerful movements
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Levels of Physical Activity
– Will influence increase/decrease in muscle
strength
– Also impacts cardiorespiratory fitness,
flexibility and increases in body fat
• Overtraining
– Psychological and physiological breakdown
– Signs
• Apathy, loss of appetite, staleness, declines in
performance, weight loss, inability to sleep
– Prevent through appropriate training protocol,
proper diet, and rest
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
What physiological changes
occur to cause increased
strength?
• Multiple theories of muscle hypertrophy
• Primary explanation of muscle hypertrophy:
– Increase in protein myofilament number and
size
• Continued need for additional research
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Core Stabilization Training
• Core refers to muscles that make up center
of body
– Low back, pelvis, hips, abdomen
• Works to stabilize body enabling muscles of
extremity to function optimally
• Weak core is a fundamental problem of
inefficient movements = injury
• Program targets strength, neuromuscular
control, power, and endurance of the core
• Program will stress multiple planes and
incorporate various resistance techniques
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Techniques of Resistance
Training
• Progressive resistance exercise
• Overload principle must be applied
• Must work muscle at increasingly higher
intensities to enhance strength over time
• If intensity of training does not increase, but
training continues, muscle strength will be
sustained
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Isometric Exercise
• Contraction where muscle length remains
unchanged
• Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds
and should be perform 5-10 times/daily
• Pro: quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab
• Con: only works at one point in ROM,
produces spiking of blood pressure due to
Valsalva maneuver
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Progressive Resistance
Exercises (Isotonic training)
• Shortening/lengthening contractions against
fixed resistance
• Concentric vs. Eccentric
• Various types of equipment can be utilized
– (Free weights, machine weight)
• Spotter is necessary for free weight training
to prevent injury, motivate partner, and
instruct on technique
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Concentric and eccentric training should be
incorporated for greatest strength
improvement
• Concentric phase of lift should last 1-2
seconds; eccentric phase 2-4 seconds
• Variations exist between free and machine
weight lifting
– Motion restrictions, levels of muscular control
required, amount of weight that can be lifted
– Equipment design, varying resistances
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Progressive Resistance Exercise
Techniques
• Terminology associated with weight
training
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Repetitions
Repetition maximum
One repetition maximum
Set
Intensity
Recovery period
Frequency
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• When training should be able to perform 3
sets of 6-8 repetitions
• Increases should occur in increments of
10%
• 1 RM can be utilized to measure maximum
amount of weight that can be lifted - must
be very careful
• Training of a particular muscle group
should occur 3-4 times per week (not on
successive days)
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Muscular Endurance vs.
Strength
• Training for endurance enhances strength
and vice versa
• Training for strength should involve lower
repetitions at heavier weight
• Training for endurance requires lower
weight at 12-15 repetitions
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Open vs. Closed Kinetic Chain
Exercises
• Anatomical functional relationship for
upper and lower extremities
• OKC
– When foot or hand are not in contact with the
ground or supporting surface
• CKC
– Foot or hand are weight bearing
– Widely used = more functional
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Isokinetic Training
• Muscle contraction at a constant velocity
• Maximal and constant resistance throughout
the full range of motion
• Maximal effort = Maximal strength gains
• Rehab
• Never widely used in strength training
• Losing popularity in rehabilitation settings
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Circuit Training
• Combination of exercise stations
• 8 - 12 stations, 3 times through
• Design for different training goals
– Flexibility
– Calisthenics
– Aerobic exercise
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Plyometric Exercise
• Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction
followed by a rapid concentric contraction
to create a forceful explosive movement
• Rate of stretch vs. magnitude
• Jumps, bounds, medicine ball throws
• Very technical training - skills must be
learned with appropriate technique
• Often develop muscle soreness as a result of
extensive eccentric loading
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Calisthenic Strengthening
Exercises
• Free exercise
• Isotonic training
• Gravity’s involvement determines level of
intensity
• Full range of motion, may incorporate
holding phase
• Pull-ups, push-ups, back extensions, leg
extensions
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Training for the Female Athlete
• Critical for female athlete
• Significant hypertrophy is related to
testosterone present within body
• Remarkable gains are experienced initially
due to enhanced nervous system and muscle
interaction (efficiency-not muscle bulk)
• Following initial gains, plateau occurs, with
females
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Males tend to continue to increase strength
with training
• Critical difference is the ratio of strength to
body fat
– Females have reduced strength to body weight
ratio due to higher percentage of body fat
– Ratio can be enhanced through weight training
and decrease in body fat percentage/increased
lean weight
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Cardiorespiratory Endurance
• Perform whole body activities for extended
period of time
• Performance vs. fatigue vs. injury
• Aerobic exercise
– Low intensity exercise that can be sustained for
a long period of time
• Anaerobic exercise
– Activity where intensity is so high that demand
for oxygen is greater than body’s ability to
deliver
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• System’s four components
–
–
–
–
Heart
Lungs
Blood vessels
Blood
• Improvements in endurance are the results
of improvements in these 4 components
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Impact on Heart
• Main pumping mechanism
• Increase exercise = increased oxygen
requirement=increase heart pumping
• Heart able to adapt through increases in
heart rate and stroke volume which will
enhance overall cardiac output
• Oxygenation of blood
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
What determines how efficiently
the body is using oxygen?
•
•
•
•
Aerobic capacity = VO2max
More active = higher capacity
Average value = 45-60 ml O2/min/kg
Increases in intensity require higher levels
of oxygen consumption
• Inherit certain range of maximum aerobic
capacity (genetics)
– Dependent on activity levels
– Also impacted by muscle fiber types
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Maximum Aerobic Capacity
• Most accurate techniques must be
performed in a laboratory setting
– Treadmill, bicycle ergometer
– Monitor heart rate and gas exchange at
particular workload
• Generally utilize heart rate to estimate
percentage of maximum aerobic capacity
– Indirect method
– Heart rate and aerobic capacity have linear
relationship
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Types of Training for
Cardiorespiratory Endurance
• Continuous
– Mode (type of exercise) - must be aerobic in
nature
– Frequency (at least 3 times/week)
– Duration(at least 20 minutes)
– Intensity (monitor intensity as % of heart rate or
perceived exertion)
• Training heart rate – target heart rate
Maximum HR = 220 - Age
• Karvonen formula
– Target HR=Resting HR+(.6 [Max HR – Resting HR)]
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Interval training
– Intermittent activities involving periods of
intense work and active recovery
– Must occur at 60-80% of maximal heart rate
– Allows for higher intensity training at short
intervals over an extended period of time
– Most anaerobic sports require short burst which
can be mimicked through interval training
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
• Fartlek training
– Cross-country running that originated in
Sweden
– Speed play
– Similar to interval training in thct activity
occurs over a specific period of time but pace
and speed are not specified
– Consists of varied terrain which incorporates
varying degrees of hills
– Dynamic form of training
– Must elevate heart rate to minimal levels to be
effective
– Popular form of training in off-season
© 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.