Transcript PowerPoint Presentation - General Education @ Gymea

PDH/PE
Personal Development, Health and Physical
Education
Core 2: Factors affecting Performance
FACTORS AFFECTING
PERFORMANCE

How does training affect performance?

energy systems

analyse each energy system by exploring:
source of fuel
efficiency of atp production
duration that the system can operate
cause of fatigue
by-products of energy production
process and rate of recovery

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FACTORS AFFECTING
PERFORMANCE

The human body is an incredible machine which requires energy to
do vast amounts of work to meet the demands placed on it by
everyday living.

Energy is found in food, and the energy content of food is measured
in kilojoules.

A person’s base metabolic rate (bmr) is the minimum amount of
kilojoules the body requires for it to function and stay alive; any extra
activity will need extra energy.
FACTORS AFFECTING
PERFORMANCE

Foods can be broken down into carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Each source of nutrient supplies a different amount of kilojoules to
the body:

protein contains 17 kilojoules per gram

fat contains 37 kilojoules per gram

carbohydrate contains 16 kilojoules per gram
FACTORS AFFECTING
PERFORMANCE

The kilojoule content of foods depends on the amount of
carbohydrates, fats and proteins present in the food.

Fat supplies around twice the kilojoules as the same amount of
carbohydrate and protein, so it is a longer lasting source of energy
but it also takes longer to digest.
Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are an ideal source of energy for the body, and are
the main nutrient which fuel exercise of a moderate to high intensity.
They can be easily broken down into glucose, a form of sugar that is
easily used by the body.

This breakdown into glucose is called glycolysis. Any glucose not
needed immediately gets stored in the muscles and the liver in the
form of glycogen. Once these glycogen stores are filled up, any
extra gets stored as fat.

Carbohydrates can take the form of simple carbohydrates, such as
sugars, or complex carbohydrates. Natural sugars are found in fruit
and vegetables and refined sugars are found in soft drinks, biscuits
and snack bars.
Carbohydrates

Complex carbohydrates are starch-based foods and are available in
root vegetables like potatoes, wholemeal breads and in refined
foods, such as white flour based foods like pizza and sugary
processed breakfast cereals.

Carbohydrates stored as glycogen are easily used for exercise.

It normally supplies the energy for the first few minutes of any
activity, either as the main energy source or it may be needed to
break down fats for longer lasting sports. Athletes should always
ensure they have full stores of carbohydrates prior to competition.
Carbohydrates
Fats

Fats are the main energy source for long and low to moderate
exercise, such as cycling.

Fats are not used initially when supplying energy, as oxygen is
needed to break down fats; so it takes some time for fat to be
converted to energy. Foods high in fat stay in the stomach for a long
period of time and as such can become detrimental to performance
if consumed too close to competition.

The major energy component from fats in the body is triglycerides,
which aid to insulate the body.

Triglycerides need to be broken down, through a process called
lipolysis, into glycerol and free fatty acids to provide energy for
activity.
Fats

These free fatty acids are then broken down into glucose, which
requires oxygen. This process is also known as oxidation. When the
body is digesting fats blood is needed, which can cause cramping
and discomfort when performing.

Most adults have enough stored fat in the form of adipose tissue to
fuel activity for hours or even days as long as there is sufficient
oxygen to allow fat metabolism to occur.
Protein

Proteins are not normally used for energy, but will do so in extreme
circumstances after all the fats and carbohydrates have been
exhausted.

If protein was used as energy this would stress the kidneys because
they have to work harder to eliminate the by-products of this protein
breakdown.

Proteins are primarily used for repairing and rebuilding muscle used
during exercise. Strength athletes, such as weightlifters, require
more protein than endurance athletes, such as marathon runners,
and the average adult due to isolated muscle use. Proteins are
broken down into amino acids.
How the body uses energy

By having a basic understanding of how food provides energy for
athletes it is important to understand how the energy is used by the
body.

Food provides energy in the form of chemical energy, which must be
converted to mechanical energy.

The breakdown of food produces energy that is stored in the body
for later use.

Adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP is an energy-rich compound that
the body uses to maintain the survival of essential processes, such
as heart beating and temperature regulation, as well as to meet the
demands of any exercise requirements.
How the body uses energy

Energy for activity is stored in the muscles in the form of ATP. ATP is
stored in small amounts in the body, which is sufficient to provide
energy for a short burst of muscular effort before it fully breaks
down.

However, through a process of resynthesis the body has the ability
to produce more ATP to continue the exercise effort, depending on
the type and length of activity.
How the body uses energy

The ATP molecule is made up of a large molecule called an
adenosine molecule and three smaller molecules called phosphates

When the bond between phosphate 2 and phosphate 3 breaks it
provides energy, which is then transferred to the cells and allows for
movement to occur.

The energy released allows muscle cells to contract.
ENERGY
How the body uses energy

At this point the molecule has only two phosphate groups attached
and is called adenosine diphosphate and may also break down to a
lower form of energy supply of adenosine monophosphate.

An average adult may break down or metabolise up to 40 kilograms
of ATP per day to maintain bodily functions.

This can rise to 0.5 kilogram per minute during strenuous exercise.

The breakdown of glycogen and creatine phosphate (PC) will supply
energy to resynthesise adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to provide
energy. Short-term energy supplies do not require oxygen to
replenish ATP, so the ATP/PC and lactic acid systems are called the
anaerobic systems.
How the body uses energy

Fuel sources needed to provide ATP for longer duration activities will
require oxygen to be present and as such are called the aerobic
energy system.

There are three energy pathways in which the body uses and
replenishes ATP molecules to facilitate the requirements of physical
activity. The energy supplied is a combination of energy systems
dependent on the intensity and duration of the exercise, determining
which method gets used and when.

The body cannot easily store ATP (and what is stored gets used up
within a few seconds), so it is necessary to continually create ATP
during exercise. In general, the two main ways the body converts
nutrients to energy are aerobic and anaerobic energy systems.
Alactacid system (atp/pc)

The alactacid system (ATP/PC) uses the stored ATP molecules in
the muscle, usually for a few seconds or one explosive movement.
The ATP molecule is then unable to provide energy to the working
muscles.

To continue the muscular movement, the body now relies on
creatine phosphate (PC) in a secondary reaction

The creatine phosphate separates into two molecules of creatine
and phosphate.
Alactacid system (atp/pc)

The energy derived from this reaction is enough to rejoin or
resynthesise the floating phosphate groups.

The body is not using new ATP molecules but rather resynthesising
the ones that had previously been broken down.

This system is used for short bouts of exercise, especially those
lasting for only up to 12 seconds, such as 100-metre sprint, shot put
and discus.
Source of fuel

This process of resynthesis of ATP goes on
continually until the creatine phosphate
molecules are broken down, which normally
takes between 10–12 seconds.

Creatine phosphate thus provides the fuel for
the alactacid energy system.
Efficiency of atp production

This is an efficient form of energy production as the chemical
reactions occur very quickly and are very simple.

The fuel for this system is already stored in the muscle as is the ATP
molecule.

It allows for immediate production or resynthesis of ATP molecules
and as such does not rely on oxygen to resynthesise ATP
molecules.
Efficiency of atp production

The recovery time for this system is also very short. The creatine
phosphate molecules will replenish themselves completely if the
body is at rest for a minimum of two minutes (approximately 50% of
PC will be restored in the first 30 seconds of rest).

Without the ATP/PC system, fast, powerful movements could not be
performed, as these activities demand a rapidly available supply of
energy. For each molecule of PC there is one molecule of ATP
resynthesised.
Duration that the system can operate

In this system, ATP is only stored in the muscles for 1–2 seconds of
activity.

Creatine phosphate (PC) molecules are also stored in the muscle
and will last for a further 10–12 seconds.

This means that the total duration for this energy system is
approximately 10–12 seconds.
Cause of fatigue

Fatigue in the ATP/PC system is mainly due to the inability of the
body to continually resynthesise ATP molecules.

This occurs when the body has used up all of its stored supply of
PC.
By-products of energy production

The only by-product given off in this energy system is heat, as
a result of the reactions breaking phosphate groups off PC and
ATP.
Process and rate of recovery

The rate of recovery is relatively short from activity.

After full depletion of ATP and PC the body will take approximately
two minutes to fully regain its normal levels of PC.
Lactic acid system
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If muscular contraction is continually required beyond the limit of the
alactacid system, the lactic acid system will continue providing the
ATP molecules to create required energy.

This system produces lactic acid as a waste product in the chemical
breakdown of glucose and glycogen (called glycolysis).

After the lactic acid system has used all of the PC, the body needs
to find a new fuel in the form of blood glucose or glycogen stored in
the muscle to keep going.

Anaerobic glycolysis provides energy by the partial breakdown of
glucose without the need for oxygen.
Lactic acid system

As glycolysis occurs the glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid,
but due to a lack of oxygen it then transforms to lactic acid. This
lactic acid then builds up in the cell and is transferred into the blood
stream where the body tries to get rid of it.

Anaerobic glycolysis provides energy by the partial breakdown of
glucose without the need for oxygen.

As glycolysis occurs the glucose is broken down into pyruvic acid,
but due to a lack of oxygen it then transforms to lactic acid. This
lactic acid then builds up in the cell and is transferred into the blood
stream where the body tries to get rid of it.
Source of fuel

The major source of fuel for this system is
carbohydrates in the form of sugar travelling
in the bloodstream, known as blood glucose,
and the glycogen stored in the muscles,
known as muscle glycogen.
Efficiency of atp production

This is a very efficient system as it continues to resynthesise ATP
molecules after the ATP/PC system has ceased.

The breakdown of glucose and glycogen provides energy which will
result in the resynthesis or regeneration of ATP molecules to be
used for muscular contraction in a short time.
Duration that the system can operate

Anaerobic metabolism produces energy for short, high-intensity
bursts of activity lasting approximately one minute at high intensity
or up to three minutes for moderate intensity.

If intensity is sub-maximal, then this energy system can last longer
than three minutes.
Cause of fatigue

It was formerly thought that lactic acid was the major cause of
fatigue when using this system.

Lactic acid is produced as a by-product of this system and has to be
transported out of the body’s cells by the blood. If high-intensity
exercise is maintained for quite a long time (40–60 seconds) the
blood cannot transport all the lactic acid out of the system and so it
builds up.

This is where the onset of blood lactate accumulation (OBLA) occurs
and causes the muscles to fatigue.

This is also known as the lactic acid threshold or anaerobic
threshold. At this point the athlete’s performance decreases as does
intensity and muscles start to tire and performance is affected.
Cause of fatigue

This is clearly evident at the end of a 400-metre race where an
athlete appears to be running quicker than other athletes, but in fact
the other athletes are slowing down faster due to lactic acid build up.

When lactate was produced in the absence of oxygen, hydrogen
ions were also produced.

The presence of hydrogen ions, not lactate, makes the muscle
acidic as they alter the pH component of the cell and that will
eventually halt muscle function.

As hydrogen ion (H+) concentrations increase, the blood and
muscle become acidic.

The higher than normal acid content in the cell will alter the
breakdown of glucose.
Cause of fatigue

Acidic muscles will aggravate associated nerve
endings causing pain and increase irritation of the
central nervous system.

When the acid content of the cell increases, nerve
endings are stimulated and the perception of
burning is encountered by the athlete.

Fatigue is due to the increased hydrogen ion
concentration and not the lactic acid.
By-products of energy production

The by-product of the lactic acid system is
pyruvic acid which, in the absence of oxygen,
produces lactate and hydrogen ions (H+).

The lactate is then used by the cells, of which
65% is converted to carbon dioxide and
water, 20% into glycogen, 10% into protein,
and 5% into glucose.
Process and rate of recovery
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It takes 20 minutes to 2 hours for lactic acid to be removed from the
blood. Depending on the body’s needs at a particular time, lactic
acid is also capable of being converted into glycogen.
The body’s recovery from using this system will be enhanced if an
active cool down is completed; this will aid the transfer of lactic acid
around the body where it can be reused.
However, the active cool down should be below the effort that would
produce more lactic acid, for example, 40–50% of maximum heart
rate.
Aerobic system
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The aerobic system requires oxygen to make the ATP molecules
needed for exercise.

Aerobic exercise is known as steady state exercise, because the
energy demands meet the energy being supplied by the body. As
the oxygen is transferred around the body via the circulatory system,
it eventually reaches the working muscles.

As the body reaches its anaerobic threshold, the body starts to slow
down and the oxygen has time to reach the working muscles and
change pyruvic acid into carbon dioxide, water and ATP.

As a result, no more lactic acid is produced due to the presence of
oxygen.
Aerobic system

Aerobic glycolysis occurs when oxygen (O2) is available to break
down pyruvate, which produces ATP through chemical reactions that
occur in the Krebs Cycle and the ‘electron transport system’.

The body now starts to break down glucose and fats, as well as
convert pyruvic acid so it can be used to regenerate ATP using
oxygen.

To begin the long-winded process of creating ATP molecules via the
aerobic energy system the glycerol portion of fat as well as pyruvic
acid are converted to acetyl coenzyme A (Acetyl CoA), which is
necessary for the next step in creating energy.

The free fatty acids are also converted to acetyl co enzyme through
a different process, called beta oxidation.
Aerobic system

At this point both the glycerol and the fatty acids have been
converted to Acetyl CoA and are now ready for the Krebs Cycle to
take place in the cells of the mitochondria.

As the Acetyl CoA is broken down, carbon dioxide and hydrogen are
removed. The energy from the breakdown of this is used to
regenerate ATP.

Once again the carbon dioxide exits the body through the lungs.
However, the hydrogen moves on to

the final stage of the electron transport system where it combines
with oxygen to form water (H2O).
Source of fuel

The fuel for the aerobic system is primarily glucose and free fatty
acids.

Most humans have fats available to be used and so have a limitless
supply of fuel to keep creating ATP molecules, these fats are broken
down into glycerol and free fatty acids.

This is essential in changing the structure of fat so it can be broken
down in the presence of oxygen.
Efficiency of atp production
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For longer slower duration of exercise, the
aerobic system is very efficient in being able
to provide an endless supply of energy to
resynthesise ATP for an extended period of
time.

Compared to glucose, fats can supply up to
10 times as many ATP molecules.
Duration that the system can operate

The aerobic energy system can supply energy to the body from 2–3
minutes to a few hours.

However, it is used primarily during endurance exercise, which is
generally less intense and can continue for long periods of time. If a
person is exercising at a low intensity (that is, below 50% of
maximum heart rate), their body has enough stored fat to provide
energy for hours or even days, provided there is enough oxygen for
reactions to occur.

Obviously the higher the intensity of the exercise, it will be easier to
become exhausted because all of the supplies in the body will be
used up.

The aerobic system is the same system the body predominantly
uses to maintain its everyday bodily functions.
Cause of fatigue

The main cause of fatigue in this system is due to the depletion of
glucose to the working muscles.

Poor respiration or circulation where it is difficult for oxygen and
nutrients to get to working muscles and subsequent poor removal of
waste products can also lead to fatigue.
By-products of energy production

The by-products formed from using this system are carbon dioxide
(CO2) and water (H2O), as a result of chemical reactions.

The water is lost through sweat or expiration and is also made
available to other cells in the body.

The carbon dioxide is breathed out as exercise takes place. These
by-products are not harmful to the athletic performance.
Process and rate of recovery

The rate of recovery is dependent on the type of activity that has
taken place. High-intensity activity for an extended period of time
will take a longer time for recovery, than if the activity was low
intensity.

The main factor to be aware of is to replenish lost glucose and
glycogen, which could take days for the food to be fully digested.

Note that the time taken for oxygen to reach the working muscles
is between 2–4 minutes before ATP is supplied predominantly by
the aerobic system.
Pathways of energy systems

During exercise an athlete will move through the various energy
pathways.

As exercise begins, ATP is produced through anaerobic metabolism
from both the ATP/PC system and the lactic acid system.

With an increase in breathing and heart rate, there is more oxygen
available and aerobic metabolism begins and continues to
resynthesise ATP molecules over an extended period of time.

The energy systems do not work independently of each other but
rather have some contribution to all sports. The amount of
contribution depends on the intensity of the activity, the duration of
the activity and how explosive the activity is.
Types of training and training
methods

Assess the relevance of the types of training and training
methods for a variety of sports by asking questions such as:

which types of training are best suited to different sports?

which training method(s) would be most appropriate? why?

how would this training affect performance?

The type of training undertaken by an athlete should meet the
specific needs of the activity being trained for. The three main
types of training are strength, aerobic and flexibility training.
Aerobic, eg continuous, fartlek,
aerobic interval, circuit


The main objective of aerobic training is to make the athlete’s body
more efficient at using oxygen.
This involves training the larger muscle groups—the arms, chest
and legs—to efficiently combine with the cardiovascular system to
supply oxygen to the athlete and their working muscles.
Aerobic, eg continuous, fartlek,
aerobic interval, circuit

Any training that will build cardiorespiratory endurance is termed
aerobic training when the majority of the energy in the athlete is
derived aerobically.

Aerobic training should follow the FITT principle, which is at least
three times a week for 20 minutes and between 65–85% maximum
heart rate.

There are many different types of aerobic training, such as
continuous, Fartlek, aerobic, interval and circuit.
Continuous training

This is the simplest form of aerobic training where there is no rest,
but rather continual effort and at an intensity where the heart rate
will be in the aerobic training zone for at least 20 minutes.

Some examples include jogging, swimming or cycling.

This training can vary from long slow duration of between 60– 80%
maximum heart rate aimed at aerobic endurance, to higher
intensities of approximately 80–90% maximum heart rate, which will
train the body’s ability to deal with lactic acid for long periods of time
and possibly increase the OBLA.

If there is too much continuous training an athlete would run the risk
of overuse injuries.
Fartlek training

Fartlek training involves alternating bursts of high-intensity activity
while still maintaining the longer slower style of training.

This training is less structured than interval training with no
predetermined structure to follow.

The athlete can then concentrate on feeling the pace and their
physical response to it, so that they’re able to develop selfawareness and pace judgment skills to set their own pace.

Work–rest intervals can be based on how the body feels. Beginners tend to
enjoy Fartlek training because it is more flexible and can be done on all
types of terrains, not specifically just on a track. This is a good form of
training for the aerobic energy system.
Fartlek training

The athlete runs continuously and puts in some sections of higher
intensity or slightly higher pace.

For example, an athlete may run at their normal pace for 300 m,
then harder for the next 100 m; they then slow down for 300 m until
breathing is back to normal levels, and then repeat the higher
intensity burst for 100 m.

By doing this, an athlete is placing more stress on their system,
which the body will adapt to after time and will improve their speed
and anaerobic threshold.
Interval training

Interval training involves periods of structured work interspersed with
rest periods in a set pattern that are designed to match the athlete’s
sport and conditioning levels.

This enables the athlete to perform at a higher intensity than if they
were continuously training. It also minimises the chances of overuse
injuries by allowing rest.

This lets the athlete be progressively overloaded and allows the
body time to adapt to changes before the interval program is
changed slightly.

This type of training program has great scope for variety due to
the variables that can be changed, such as frequency, intensity
and duration. Altering any of these can help the athlete avoid
fatigue, maintain variety and be motivated.
Interval training

An interval session could be running 200 m in 35 seconds with a 60second recovery period.

A second session could be running 200 m in 35 seconds with a 30second recovery period.

In this way the athlete is training both the aerobic and anaerobic
energy system, in the first instance with a longer recovery session,
but in the second instance mainly the anaerobic energy system.

Due to these factors interval training is seen as a great way to
improve both the aerobic and anaerobic systems due to its structure.

This allows the body to build new capillaries and become more
efficient in the delivery of oxygen to the working muscles.
Circuit training

Circuit training is a type of interval training as it relates to the athlete
selecting different exercises or stations to use for a set interval of
time with little or no rest.

The number of circuits and stations can be predetermined by the
coach or the athlete, and can consist of set machines or body
weights.

Circuits can be customised from beginners to more experienced
athletes to develop all-round fitness.
Circuit training

A well-designed circuit provides a balanced workout that targets all
the muscle groups to effectively develop strength, build
cardiovascular endurance (both aerobic and anaerobic), and allow
flexibility and coordination all in one exercise session.

Circuit training can progressively overload the athlete by altering the
exercise time at a given station, increase resistance, and add more
exercises for a certain area of training and decreasing rest time
between stations.
Anaerobic, eg anaerobic interval

Anaerobic interval training is similar to aerobic interval training in
that high-intensity activity is completed with either lesser recovery or
at a minimum of 2 minutes rest applied.

With such a minimal recovery an athlete will train as close as
possible to the anaerobic threshold, so that they can try and
increase the tolerance to lactic acid and use the anaerobic energy
system more efficiently for endurance.

By using a minimum two minutes rest it gives the creatine
phosphate time to replenish and allow for full explosive activity to
occur again.

an improved performance by increasing the efficiency of the
cardiovascular system.
Anaerobic, eg anaerobic interval

This is an exceptional training method for experienced athletes who
predominantly use the ATP/PC or lactic acid systems for events
such as 400- to 1500-metre running.

The advantages for using this type of training include muscles
developing a higher tolerance to the build-up of lactate and an
improved performance by increasing the efficiency of the
cardiovascular system.
Flexibility, eg static, ballistic, pnf,
dynamic

Flexibility refers to the range of motion of a joint or group of joints.

There are a number of ways in which flexibility can be utilised,
including static stretching, proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation
(PNF), dynamic stretching and ballistic stretching—first two involve
passive stretching and the last two involve movement.

The degree of flexibility of motion varies among people and depends
on the structural characteristics of their joint and its connective
tissue.
Flexibility, eg static, ballistic, pnf,
dynamic

Flexibility decreases with age primarily due to loss of elasticity and
joint mobility.

Generally, females are more flexible than males.

A flexible person will have improved neuromuscular pathways,
which will minimise injuries.

Temperature also influences flexibility, as an increased range of
motion is available in warmer temperatures.
Flexibility, eg static, ballistic, pnf,
dynamic

When a muscle is stretched, receptors within the muscle, known as
muscle spindles are stimulated. They record the change in length
and send a signal to the spine, which then sends a message to the
brain that the muscle is being extended.

If the muscle is overstretched or stretched too fast, the spinal cord
sends a reflex message to the muscle to contract.

This is a basic protective mechanism, referred to as the stretch
reflex, to help prevent over-stretching and injury.

A reason for holding the stretch is so the muscle spindle adapts and
gets used to the length of the stretched muscle and ceases to send
signals to the spinal cord and brain.
Flexibility, eg static, ballistic, pnf,
dynamic

Each of the following stretching methods operates on the idea that
to increase flexibility and prevent risk of injury, the muscle being
stretched should be as relaxed as possible.
Static stretching

This is a form of passive stretching and consists of stretching a
muscle to its farthest point or limit and then maintaining or holding
that position for a period of 15–30 seconds.

This is the most commonly used flexibility technique and is very safe
and effective, because it is done in a controlled slow manner.

Static stretching is used extensively with athletes recovering from
injury to ensure that the muscle fibres are being aligned properly in
the rehabilitation phase.

This stretch should be performed without discomfort or pain.
Pnf stretching

The PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation) method is a
combined technique of static stretching and isometric stretching and
works with the muscle spindle to get used to the new length of the
muscle.

A muscle group is statically stretched, and then contracts
isometrically against resistance while in the stretched position.

It is then statically stretched again through the resulting increased
range of motion.
Pnf stretching

PNF stretching usually requires the use of a partner to provide
resistance against the isometric contraction; the static stretch will
help the muscle spindle get used to the new length of the muscle
after it has been isometrically stretched.

PNF stretching is an excellent method of stretching for rehabilitation
as it can stretch further than static stretching in a controlled
environment with minimal risk of injury.
Dynamic stretching

This method involves actively moving parts of the body being
stretched to increase the length of the muscle.

It is a controlled movement, which takes the muscle to its limits
where it is guided by the stretch reflex on how far to stretch.

Dynamic stretching does not force the muscle beyond its normal
range of motion.

An example would be swinging a golf club just prior to a shot being
played.
Ballistic stretching

Ballistic stretching is a form of dynamic stretching and uses the
movement of the body to force it further than its normal range of
motion.

This is stretching by bouncing into a stretched position, using the
stretched muscles as a spring which pulls you out of the stretched
position.

An example would be toe touches to stretch hamstrings by bouncing
down and touching the toes with your hands.
Ballistic stretching

The main problem with this type of training is that the stretch can
actually override the stretch reflex mechanism and cause injury.

So this type of stretching is not useful for beginners or intermediate
athletes, because it does not allow the muscles to relax in the
stretched position.

However, for elite athletes trained in this method of stretching, it very
useful because it replicates movement required for their specific
activity better than other methods.
Strength training, eg free/fixed
weights, elastic, hydraulic

Strength or resistance training is another training method used to
improve athletic performance.

Strength is the maximum force against a set resistance that
muscles can exert in a single effort.

This force is related to the cross- sectional area of the muscle
fibre and subsequent muscle itself, for example, the bigger the
muscle the bigger the force given.

This is a basic definition of absolute strength, however, there are
other strength training methods, such as power and endurance,
all of which have different programs that athletes use to achieve
their goals.
Strength training, eg free/fixed
weights, elastic, hydraulic

All sports use at least one form of strength or resistance training

In order to have a better understanding of strength it is important to
understand the following terminologies that are specific to resistance
training:

rest: The period of time you allow for the body and muscles to
recover between sets.

resistance: Another word for weight.

eccentric contraction: Lengthening of the muscle fibres.

concentric contraction: Shortening of the muscle fibres.
Strength training, eg free/fixed
weights, elastic, hydraulic

endurance: The ability for a muscle to repeatedly contract against a
given resistance and reduce fatigue.

power: The ability for the muscle to exert force over a distance in a
short time.

spotter: A partner who helps with an athlete’s exercises.
Strength training, eg free/fixed
weights, elastic, hydraulic

A muscle will either shorten or lengthen when undergoing a
resistance program. Types of muscular actions are:

isometric: A force is applied but there is little or no change in length
of the muscle and its fibres. The strength is specific to certain
angles.

isotonic: Muscle fibres shorten or lengthen depending on the
exercise and whether it is the agonist or antagonist muscle in the
exercise.

For example, in biceps curl, the biceps shortens in a concentric
contraction while the triceps lengthens in an eccentric contraction.
Strength training, eg free/fixed
weights, elastic, hydraulic

isokinetic: The use of machines to ensure the weight is applied
through the full range of motion.

These machines are elaborate in their design to ensure exercise is
done correctly.
Strength training, eg free/fixed
weights, elastic, hydraulic

When a coach trains an athlete they take into account what physical
activity the athlete will be doing, the specific type of strength
required and the muscle fibres that will be used to do it.

The coach should know the predominant types of muscular activity
associated with the physical event, the movement pattern involved
and the type of strength required.

Most strength programs will require a recovery of 3–5 minutes
between sets to enable the ATP/PC system to replenish the PC
component and for the fibres to recover somewhat (however, only
minimum recovery should be taken if strength endurance is the aim).
Strength training, eg free/fixed
weights, elastic, hydraulic

The majority of athletic events are fast and dynamic so this specific
requirement must be present in any program.

There is also a variety of equipment available to increase strength.
Weight machines

Weight machines enable correct positioning and proper movement
while an athlete is lifting weights.

Most machines are hydraulic in nature and are excellent for isolating
individual muscles.

The guided action and variable resistance when training also make
weight machines popular as rehabilitation instruments, as they are
much safer than free weights or dumbbells.

The weight in the machine will only move if the athlete applies force
to it increasing safety for the user.
Weight machines

Weight machines are very expensive and are not space efficient.
Variable resistance machines are effective tools for building strength
and muscle tone and are designed to work the target muscle in
isolation.

However, this prevents the athlete from recruiting other muscle
groups when performing exercise which the free weights do.
Free/fixed weights

Dumbbells and barbells can appear as either fixed or free
weights.

Some free weights are fixed at set weights and some are
adjustable.

Free weights allow a greater range of motion than machines and
allow for symmetry to occur between both sides of the body
when doing resistance training.

Using free or fixed weights also encourage better joint strength
and a closer transfer of training to a given activity.
Free/fixed weights

Free weights can isolate a particular muscle and enlist the help of
the antagonist muscle at the same time.

The assisting muscles help stabilise the body, support limbs and
maintain posture during a lift.

Lifting free weights improves the athlete’s coordination by making
the neuromuscular pathways better.

Free weights are cheaper than fixed weights because they can be
adapted for a number of exercises; whereas fixed weights requires
the athlete to have several different weight sizes available to alter
the resistance during strength training and not to overload the body.

In terms of safety it is recommended that when people use free or
fixed weights they work with a spotter.
Elastic bands

A more recent form of resistance training is the use of elastic
bands.

These are a cheap alternative to weights and provide much the
same resistance.

They are extremely space effective and different elastics are
available with different resistance (they are normally colour
coded).

The use of elastic bands also offers variety where athletes can
continue their training program with a different method.
Elastic bands

One of the main advantages for using elastic bands is that the
athlete feels the resistance during the full exercise motion.

For example, when using dumbbell weights, the resistance is
stronger when performing the up motion, like in the bicep curl. But
on the down motion, the resistance is less as gravity is helping with
the return position.

With resistance bands, the muscle tension is felt at both the up and
down and full range of motion, giving the athlete complete
resistance training.
Principles of training

Analyse how the principles of training can be applied to both
aerobic and resistance training

There are various principles of training that athletes must take into
account if they are going to maximise their training and have a
successful performance.

By adhering to the following principles the athlete will be physically
and psychologically prepared for their event.
Progressive overload

One of the key principles of training is progressive overload.
Improvement will only occur when the athlete undertakes a
training load exceeding what the body is normally accustomed to
and is forced to operate beyond its normal range.

Progressive overload can be achieved by varying the frequency,
duration and intensity of the training. Changes in intensity have
the greatest effect on fitness.

However, it can cause injury if done incorrectly. To avoid this, the
athlete should first alter the frequency, then increase the duration
and then increase the intensity when the fitness level is high
enough to cope with the extra demand.
Progressive overload

Overload can be progressed in resistance training by increasing:
the resistance, the number of repetitions with a particular weight,
the number of sets, the intensity - more work in the same time by
reducing the recovery periods.

Overload can be progressed in aerobic training by increasing: the
time spent exercising, the frequency of training, the intensity—to
cover a set distance in slightly less time.

An athlete will need appropriate recovery time between sessions.
Once the body has adapted to a certain level, increase the load
and repeat training.

This initial training program will produce a training response
Progressive overload

Adaptation occurs during the recovery period after the training
session is completed. If there is no progression, then the athlete’s
fitness level will plateau and no improvement will occur.

Workloads which are too high, and have abrupt increases in
frequency, duration, or intensity, can lead to overuse injuries.

Athletes must be careful to maintain a balance in their training
program. If they overtrain, this will be detrimental to their
performance, and if the training is not overloaded enough
improvement will not occur.
Progressive overload

Athletes need to be aware that not all
adaptations will occur in the same timeframe.
Improvement should be noted for any sport
after at least six weeks work.

The key to successful training is to increase
the workload gradually over a long period so
that improvements can be maintained and
overtraining avoided.
Specificity

Specificity is exercise aimed at specific or designated components
of fitness, muscle groups and/or energy systems used in the activity
being trained for

Specificity should also be used to replicate as closely as possible
the movements in the activity being trained for
Specificity

For example, a cyclist will not get much benefit from swimming
due to different muscle groups, but a squash player may get
more benefit from playing tennis although the technique is
slightly different.

The squash player gets more transfer from their training by
playing tennis.

This will then overload the relevant physiological systems and
achieve a training effect for the squash player and follow the
principle of specificity.

If training closely resembles what the actual performance is then
positive athletic gains will be made.
Reversibility

If training is stopped, gains made by the athlete will decline at
approximately one-third of the rate of acquisition.

Athletes should maintain strength, conditioning and flexibility
throughout the competitive season, but at a lesser intensity and
volume.

This is also called detraining as the training is going in reverse.

A study of an Olympic rower in the United Kingdom found that after
8 weeks of rest it took the same athlete 20 weeks to achieve the
level of fitness they had prior to the rest.

After 8 weeks of training previous fitness levels had returned to
about 50 % of their normal level
Reversibility

As a result of the study, researchers suggest that complete rest last
for no more than 2–3 weeks, and that recommended training
programs should limit periods of complete inactivity to no more than
2–3 weeks.

Extended periods of rest should be avoided if performance is to be
maintained.

It is certainly difficult to maintain training if the athlete is injured, but
substitute training should occur for the athlete to try and maintain
previous levels of strength, flexibility or aerobic fitness prior to the
injury.

This will reduce the detraining effect and allow the athlete to achieve
their previous levels of training earlier than normal.
Variety

Coaches have a very important role to continually improve an
athlete’s performance and to sustain enjoyment in what they do with
the athletes.

The principle of variety is important to maintain motivation and
reduce the athlete’s boredom in training—doing the same drills each
week does little to promote variety.

Coaches need to investigate different ways to meet the training
objective of their athlete while reducing boredom.

For example, when team training partner activities can promote
working together, or doing a biathlon will maintain aerobic fitness
rather than doing one continuous run.
Training thresholds

There is a minimum amount of exercise which is required to produce
improvements in athletic performance.

For exercise to be effective, it must be performed:

with sufficient frequency

at a high enough intensity

for sufficient length of duration (usually 20 minutes minimum).
Training thresholds

Training thresholds are two points which indicate the zone for
athletic improvement to occur.

The thresholds relate to the maximum heart rate of the athlete.

This is calculated using the Karvonen formula (after Dr Martti
Karvonen): 220 minus the athlete’s age. So a 25-year-old athlete
has a max heart rate of 195.

The lowest threshold an athlete must operate at is called the aerobic
training threshold and refers to the lowest point at which training is
of benefit to the athlete. It is roughly 60% of a person’s maximum
heart rate.
Training thresholds

The target heart rate zone (training zone) is between 60–80% of the
maximum heart rate. Working within this zone gives a person the
maximum health and fat-burning benefits from their cardiovascular
activity.

When an athlete trains above the aerobic threshold and below the
anaerobic threshold they are working in the aerobic training zone.
Training in this zone develops an athlete’s aerobic endurance.

All easy recovery running should be completed at a maximum of
70% maximum heart rate. For example, a 25-year-old person’s
aerobic training zone is between the heart rates 117–154.

Training between 70–80% of maximum heart rate will increase the
cardiovascular system.

The anaerobic threshold is where OBLA happens. As a result fatigue
starts to occur so the body slows down and trains once more in the
aerobic training zone.

Another test coaches use is the talk test. If the athlete struggles to
talk in a controlled manner, they are no longer working within the
aerobic system but rather the anaerobic system.

For athletes who rely heavily on the lactic acid system they would
train as close as possible to the anaerobic threshold.

Through correct training, it is possible for an athlete to delay the
threshold by being able to increase the ability to deal with the lactic
acid for a longer period of time or by pushing the threshold higher.
Warm up and cool down

Each training session is organised around three areas: the warm up,
skills and conditioning, and then cool down.

The warm-up can be divided into three sections: a general body
warm-up, stretching and activity- specific where certain muscle
groups are used.

Overall warm-up should take no more than 10% of exercise time.
Warm up and cool down

In the first phase, a general warming-up occurs by using major
muscle groups.

This is designed to raise the temperature of the body and its
structures, such as the muscles.

The idea is to increase mobility in readiness for physical activity
while reducing the risk of injury.

The warm-up is best accomplished with a full-body activity, such as
jogging, and should last for at about 5 minutes, at an intensity to
increase body temperature yet should not lead to fatigue.

Often included after this phase are some stretching exercises that
go through a functional range of motion, holding positions usually
between 10–30 seconds.
Warm up and cool down

The cool down is effectively a warm-up in reverse. Cooling down
after an aerobic exercise is important to bring the heart rate back to
normal slowly, so that the strain is taken off the heart and prevent
blood pooling in the extremities of the body, such as the feet.

If a cool down is not done, muscle stiffness may occur from waste
that was built up in the muscles and not allowed to be worked out
with a cool down.
Physiological adaptations in response
to training


examine the relationship between the principles of training,
physiological adaptations and improved performance
There are various adaptations that an athlete’s body makes as a
result of training.

These physiological adaptations will vary in time from one athlete to
another, as well as how quickly they are noticed by the athlete.

The physiological adaptations most noticeable are resting heart rate,
stroke volume, cardiac output, haemoglobin level, muscle
hypertrophy and the effect training has on fast and slow twitch
muscle fibre recruitment.
Resting heart rate

The heart consists of cardiac muscle and like any muscle that
undergoes training it will undergo hypertrophy and become more
efficient.

A consequence of training is a lower resting heart rate than pre
training.

This is due to a more efficient cardiovascular system as well as
stroke volume.
Stroke volume and cardiac output

The stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart
per beat. As the heart becomes more efficient the left ventricle
actually becomes bigger and as a result will pump more blood out
per beat than pre training.

The heart is also more forceful now with each beat as an adaptation.

Cardiac output is the amount of blood pumped out of the heart per
minute by the heart.
Stroke volume and cardiac output

To calculate this, multiply the stroke volume by the heart rate. The
heart rate will rise normally under maximal or sub- maximal activity
to increase the ventilation rates around the body.

As the stroke volume is bigger, the cardiac output will rise
accordingly due to training.

This then increases the amount of blood being sent around the
body:

Cardiac output (CO) = Stroke volume (SV) X heart rate (HR)
Oxygen uptake and lung capacity

The oxygen uptake refers to the amount of oxygen the body uses
per minute and is the maximum capacity of an individual’s body to
transport and utilise oxygen.

It is also known as VO2 max. It is the strongest indicator of an
athlete’s ability in endurance events.

When a trained athlete is performing at maximal levels of work, the
amount of oxygen used by their muscles is higher than pre training.


Through training, an athlete’s cardiac output is increased and
ventilation rates rise as a result of exercise.
This allows the athlete to absorb and utilise oxygen more efficiently
during exercise.
Oxygen uptake and lung capacity

The greater the number of red, slow-twitch muscle fibres people
have, the more oxygen they will be able to absorb; and they will
have higher haemoglobin levels than athletes with white, fast-twitch
fibres.

White, fast-twitch fibres tend to reduce the amount of oxygen
absorbed.

The oxygen uptake will improve as a result of training.

The lung capacity of athletes after undergoing training will remain
the same as they were before training.
Haemoglobin level

The haemoglobin molecule is the substance that the oxygen
molecule binds to for transportation around the body to working
muscles and other body parts that requires it for survival.

It is found in the red blood cells.

As the oxygen uptake increases with training, so does the
haemoglobin content due to increased efficiency of the
cardiorespiratory system.

As haemoglobin will increase with aerobic training, those athletes
with fast twitch fibres and who train anaerobically may not notice a
significant increase in haemoglobin content due to their training
programs.
Muscle hypertrophy

Muscle hypertrophy refers to an increase in muscle size. As an
immediate response to training, the muscle fibres increase in size as
more fluid goes to the muscle.

As a response to extended training, the muscles used will increase
in size again as the fibres adapt to the training load and lead to an
overall increase in muscle size.

These fibre changes also occur because of structural changes in the
fibre by the increased size of connective tissue or filaments or a
combination of both.
Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle
fibres

The effect of training on the type of muscle fibres—either fasttwitch (explosive movement) or slow-twitch (longer slower
contraction)—relates almost directly to specificity.

Low-to-moderate activity will recruit slow- twitch fibres and
increase the cross sectional area of these fibres.

As the fast-twitch fibres have not been recruited, there is little
change in their structure.

Continued training for endurance can lead to slight structural
changes in fast-twitch fibres, but little evidence has been found to
indicate fast-twitch fibres change to slow-twitch fibres.
Effect on fast/slow twitch muscle
fibres

An increase in the number of capillaries to slow twitch muscle fibres
will also result in hypertrophy of those fibres.

These slow-twitch muscles are characterised by a high aerobic
endurance capacity that enhances aerobic ATP energy production
system.

Our modern lifestyle reinforces the recruitment of slow-twitch muscle
fibres in what we do daily.

Any training athletes do for fast-twitch fibres must be maintained,
otherwise the effects of training will be lost due to reversibility.