Transcript History of Microbiology

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History of Microbiology
First Epidemics
• Were Possibly
Waterborne
• Infected Caveman
• Contaminating Water
Supply
• People Had No Real
Understanding of Why
Disease Occurred
Growth of Epidemics
• Isolated Groups / Sporadic Disease Episodes
• Civilization Progressed / People Clustered in
Cities / Increased Contact = Increased Disease
• Shared Communal Water, Handled Unwashed
Food, Stepped in Excrement from Casual
Discharge
• Crowding Increased / Bred Waterborne, Insect
Borne, and Skin-to-Skin Infectious Diseases
• Still No General Understanding of Why Disease
Occurs
So What Did They Attribute
Disease To?
Trepanation
Trepanation is the oldest
surgical procedure
practiced by mankind.
It is the act of cutting of
hole in one's skull to allow
your brain better access
to blood flow and to
'awaken ancient parts of
the brain'.
Performed Across the
Globe by Medicine-men,
Shamans, Witch Doctors,
Etc.
High Success Rate!
According to John
Verano, a professor of
anthropology at Tulane
University, trepanation is
the oldest surgical
practice and is still
performed ceremonially
by some African tribes. A
trepanned skull found in
France was dated at about
5,000 BC. About 1,000
trepanned skulls from
Peru and Bolivia date
from 500 B.C. to the 16th
century.
Ancient Woodcutting Showing Trepanation in Elizabethan Times
Aztec trephining knife made of
bronze and gold (1200-1400 AC)
Various Methods Exist
1.
Scrape
2.
Cut
3.
Hammer and Chisel
4.
Drill
Trepanation is Practiced Today
The “Third Eye”
Feeling depressed? Lethargic? Shell-shocked by life's little
bombardments? You could try meditation. Or yoga. Or color
therapy. Or herbal remedies. Or, if you prefer drastic
measures, you could drill a hole in your head.
http://www.free.de/homes/joern/luck_hole.html
Bart H. a medical school graduate who
has never practiced medicine except for a
bit of self-surgery, believes that
trepanation is the way to higher
consciousness. He wanted to be a
psychiatrist but failed the obstetrics exam
and so never went into practice. In 1965,
after years of experimentation with LSD,
cannabis and other drugs, Dr. H. realized
that the way to enlightenment was by
boring a hole in his skull. He used an
electric drill, a scalpel, and a hypodermic
needle (to administer a local anesthetic).
The operation took him 45 minutes. How
does it feel to be enlightened? "I feel like
I did when I was 4," says H.
This weekend I had a hole drilled through my skull. I read that this
increased one’s consciousness permanently. I read about the
supposed de-conditioning properties. I read about more parts of the
brain working simultaneously as there would be more blood up
there to help this happen. The arguments for it all seemed to be
quite lengthy, quite detailed, thought out and researched, and very
intelligent. The arguments against it were based solely on the
opinion that it is ‘crazy’ and talk like, "What’s more conscious than
conscious?". I heard from an acquaintance on telephone that she
was glad she had done it, felt more mental energy, and had days of
brilliance. I came to believe that the key to a permanent
consciousness increase was a hole in the skull, to restore the full
brain pulsation of infancy. After several months of research,
discussion, speculation, watching surgical videos and trepanation
documentaries, and even an actual viewing of a trepanation, I
decided I certainly did want to be trepanned, and sought a way to
do it.
• I do think trepanation causes lasting and permanent
pleasurable effects, but I don't think they are caused by
more blood being in your brain. I think it definitely does
increase the brain blood volume, but I don't think that
causes the pleasurable mental side effects. I think that by
undergoing an intense physical process, while focusing
extremely intently on your sensory impressions, that you
can become quite aware of every sensation and every
stimulus that you usually would miss or overlook.
• There is an intense joy and renewed vigor that comes just
from living through it. Time and again you hear how those
that live through a near-death experience are re-awakened
to the ability to appreciate life again, like a child. You are
happy that you are still alive at all, and along with that the
days are cherished and exciting again. You get to keep
living them!
Proper sanitation is an important
factor in order to address the
problems of health and disease.
Sanitation and Disease
• From archeology we learn that various
ancient civilizations began to develop
rudimentary plumbing.
Toilets and Sewers
Public Toilets and Baths
Toilet Paper
Piped Water Supplies
Ancient Greeks Carried Waste From
Their Homes in Pots and Used It to
Fertilize Fields
Human Wastes Used for Crop
Fertilizer.
What About Today?
Sewage Sludge
• Definition:
1. Anything Flushed, Poured, or Dumped
• Includes
1. Wastes from homes to chemical industries to
chemical factories.
• Contains
1. Heavy Metals
2. Industrial Compounds
3. Viruses
4. Bacteria
5. Drug Residues
Effects?
Hundreds of people have fallen ill after
being exposed to sewage sludge fertilizer-suffering such symptoms as respiratory
distress, headaches, nausea, rashes,
reproductive complications, cysts, and
tumors.
What About the EPA?
• The EPA (United States) monitors only nine
of the thousands of pathogens commonly
found in sludge; the agency rarely performs
site inspections of sewage treatment plants;
and it almost never inspects the farms that
use sludge fertilizer.
CDC?
• Regulations governing the use and disposal of
sewage sludge have been criticized by both the
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and
the National Research Council, as well as
numerous medical professionals, engineers, and
activists.
• The Center for Food Safety seeks to end the use
of sewage sludge as an agricultural fertilizer--first
through an immediate moratorium on its
application to croplands.
Roman Sanitation advanced to public toilets where they sat next
to each other on a stone bench. They used and shared a sponge
on a stick stuck in a bottle of salt water, because they didn't have
toilet paper.
The walls of the toilet were
painted with pictures of Roman
gods. The gods of smell,
Stercutius and Crepitus and the
goddess of the sewers, Cloacina.
The sewage from public toilets
was emptied into gutters in the
street, or buried in pits.
Motivated by concerns of
esthetics, comfort, and
convenience. They wanted a
pleasant existence, but there is
little evidence that they
understood the connection
between sanitation and disease
control.
Roman Public Baths
Occupied 100’s and 1000’s of bathers at a time. But without filtration or
circulation systems, the bathers basked in germ-ridden water and the huge pools
had to be emptied and refilled daily.
What About Today?
Is Lack of Proper Sanitation
Still A Problem?
Human Waste Overwhelms
India's War on Disease
•
By Kenneth J. Cooper
Washington Post Foreign Service
Monday, February 17, 1997; Page A27
• About half the world's reported cases of polio, a
crippling disease virtually wiped out in Western
countries, occur in India. Each year, diarrhea kills
500,000 Indian children. A jaundice epidemic
strikes a small district of India's Rajasthan state as
regularly as the annual monsoon.
• Those deadly diseases and others that afflict India can
be traced to the same source: drinking water
contaminated by human waste. Infected water causes an
estimated 80 percent of disease in India, according to
the World Health Organization (WHO), making poor
sanitation and inadequate sewage disposal the nation's
biggest public health problems.
http://www.swopnet.com/engr/sanitation/India_sewer
html
• The World Health Organization says that
every year more than 3.4 million people die
as a result of water related diseases,
making it the leading cause of disease and
death around the world. Most of the
victims are young children, the vast
majority of whom die of illnesses caused by
organisms that thrive in water sources
contaminated by raw sewage.
• http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2005-03/200503-17-voa34.cfm
The Fall of the Roman Empire
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Lead Water Piles
Lead Cooking Utensils
Lead Goblets for Drinking
Earthquakes, Volcanic Eruptions
Disease Epidemics
“This led to the Dark Ages. One Thousand Years of
Sicknesses and Plagues of Unbridled Virulence, Fanned by
Fleas and Mosquitoes, Excrement and Filth, Stagnant and
Contaminated Water of Every Description”
Historic Text
The Dark Ages
• Water was Precious
• Mass Epidemics
• Diseases Were Widely
Recognized as being
Communicable
• The Diseased were
therefore Isolated
Shunning of Lepers
The Black Death: "Realizing what a deadly disaster had
come to them the people quickly drove the Italians from their
city. However, the disease remained, and soon death was every
where. Fathers abandoned their sick sons. Lawyers refused to
come and make out wills for the dying. Friars and nuns were
left to care for the sick, and monasteries and convents were
soon deserted, as they were stricken, too. Bodies were left in
empty houses, and there was no one to give them a Christian
burial."
Author Unknown
Hythe Ossuary: remains of
Black Death victims
Anne Dacre, Countess of Arundel (1557-1638) was a noted lay medical practitioner and
herbalist whose recipes are found in many seventeenth century compilations. This recipe for
a pomander that would protect against the plague comes from her own collection of recipes,
held in the Main Manuscript series. Reference: MS.213
Quarantine (from the Italian quarentina,
meaning forty days for the time of isolation of
ships entering harbor which were suspected of
carrying some form of contagion) is only
somewhat effective at the outset of an
outbreak. In the fourteenth century, Milan,
Florence, and Venice employed quarantines
with a vengeance. The homes of sufferers were
sealed—well and sick left to die for lack of
food and water. Of course, the human residents
of such dwellings were constrained, while the
rats could come and go as they pleased. Even
rats aboard docked quarantined ships had easy
egress, because they could climb down the
mooring ropes and onto the docks.
Yellow
Quarantine
Flag Flown
From
Ships
Top Killers
• 1900s (Infectious Diseases)
- Flu and Pneumonia
- Tuberculosis
- Gastric Infections (Diarrhea)
• 2000s (????)
- Heart Disease
- Cancer
- Stroke
2004-2005
• 15,000,000 Children
Die Each Year from
Infectious Diseases
that are Preventable
with Basic Sanitation,
Nutrition,
Immunization, and
Simple Medical
Treatments.
Viewing Microbes
Food Spoilage
Mold and Bacterial Colonies were observed, but the
organisms that caused the disease were still invisible.
Hans and Zacharias Jansen
Robert Hooke
In 1665, a physicist named Robert Hooke used
one of the first microscopes to look more closely
at the living world. A slice of cork caught his eye.
Looking at thousands of tiny chambers, Hooke
termed these structures cells because they
reminded him of the rooms in a monastery.
Cell Theory
• All living things are composed of
cells.
• The cell is the basic functional unit of
all living organisms.
• Cells come from preexisting cells.
– Theodore Schwann
– Mattias Schleiden
– Rudolf Virchow
Servetus
Galileo
Change Came Slowly Because the
Public Assumed That The People
They Admired Were Experts
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Aristotle
Plato
Hippocrates
Religious Leaders / Pope
The Invisible College
• The origins of the Royal Society lie in a group of men
who began meeting in secret around 1645 to discuss the
new philosophy of science.
• The common theme among the scientists who began the
Society was acquiring knowledge by experimental
investigation rather than by divine announcement.
• The first group of such men included Robert Boyle, John
Wilkins, John Wallis, John Evelyn, Thomas Willis,
Robert Hooke, Christopher Wren and William Petty.
•The Royal Society is the world’s oldest scientific academy in
continuous existence, and has been at the forefront of enquiry and
discovery since its foundation in 1660. There are currently more than
65 Nobel Laureates amongst the Society’s approximately 1300
Fellows and Foreign Members. Throughout its history, the Society
has promoted excellence in science through its Fellowship, which
has included Isaac Newton, Charles Darwin, Ernest Rutherford,
Albert Einstein, Dorothy Hodgkin, Francis Crick, James Watson and
Stephen Hawking.
The Royal
Society
The coat-of-arms of the Royal
Society as a stained-glass
window. The motto is 'Nullius
in verba'.
•The Society is independent of
government, as it has been
throughout its existence, by virtue
of its Royal Charters. In 1663,
‘The Royal Society of London for
the Improvement of Natural
Knowledge’ was granted its Arms
and adopted the motto Nullius in
verba, an expression of its
enduring commitment to
empirical evidence as the basis of
knowledge about the natural
world.
Anton Van Leeuwenhoek
Microscope
Specimen
• Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
• . . . my work, which I've done for a long
time, was not pursued in order to gain the
praise I now enjoy, but chiefly from a
craving after knowledge, which I notice
resides in me more than in most other men.
And therewithal, whenever I found out
anything remarkable, I have thought it my
duty to put down my discovery on paper, so
that all ingenious people might be informed
thereof. Antony van Leeuwenhoek. Letter
of June 12, 1716
Carl Zeiss and Ernst Abbe
Ernst Ruska
Growth of Hospitals
Originally Used by the Poor. Later became Centers of Physician Training.
Ignaz
Semmelweis
Vienna Maternity Ward
Puerperal Sepsis
Two Major Questions Existed
• Does Spontaneous Generation Occur?
• What is the Nature of Contagious
Disease?
Two Theories Existed
• Spontaneous Generation
- Theory that living things could arise
from nonliving things.
• Biogenesis
- Theory that living things come only
from other living things.
Spontaneous
Generation
The idea that life
routinely arises from
non-life was
supported by
Aristotle.
J.B. Van Helment / Favored SG
• Published a recipe for making
“mice” at home.
John Needham / Favored SG
• Boiled a “broth” or “soup” which
should kill any microbes. Left it sitting
out. It spoiled.
Lazzaro Spallanzani
• Boiled “broth” in glass
containers and melted
the glass closed.
• Nothing Grew
• Technique was
Criticized
Francesco Redi / Opposed SG
Redi's Problem
Where do maggots come from? Do
they form by Spontaneous
Generation
Hypothesis: Maggots come from
flies.
Redi put meat into three separate
jars.
Jar 1 was left open Jar 2 was
covered with netting
Jar 3 was sealed from the outside
Jar-1
Left open
Maggots
developed
Flies were
observed laying
eggs on the meat
in the open jar
Jar-2
Covered with
netting Maggots
appeared on the
netting
Flies were
observed laying
eggs on the
netting
Jar-3
Sealed No
maggots
developed
Louis Pasteur / Opposed SG
Pasteur's Problem
Where do the microbes come from to cause broth to decay.
Hypothesis: Microbes come from cells of organisms on dust
particles in the air; not the air itself.
Pasteur put broth into several special S-shaped flasks
Each flask was boiled and placed at various locations
Louis Pasteur is Credited with
Disproving the Idea of Spontaneous
Generation
One Question Had Been Answered!
Pasteur’s Other Contributions
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Assisted Napoleon III in 1857
Developed Process of Pasteurization
Founded Modern Immunology
Worked with Chicken Cholera
Produced Vaccines for Animals
Indirectly Discovered Endospores
Ferdinand Cohn
• Credited with
Discovering
Endospores
• German
botanist
• Father of
Bacteriology
Joseph Lister
Developed Antiseptic
Surgery
Sterilized with Heat
Swabbed with Carbonic
Acid
Reduced Post Surgical
Infections
Lister with his staff at King's College Hospital
Although the
microscope was
invented in the 1600’s,
it took 200 years for
scientists to discover
its use in isolating and
identifying specific
microbes for a
particular disease.
Robert
Koch
Credited with
demonstrating
the first direct
link between a
single microbe
and a single
disease –
Tuberculosis.
1 in 7 People Died from TB
Koch’s Postulates
• The organisms should be present in diseased individuals
but not in healthy individuals
• The organisms must be cultured away from the plant or
animal body
• Such a culture, when inoculated into susceptible
animals, should initiate the characteristic disease
symptoms
• The organisms should be re-isolated from these
experimental animals and cultured again in the
laboratory, after which it should still be the same as the
original organism.
Germ Theory of Disease
• Germs are the cause of disease and the
reason for the contagious factor.
The Second Question Had Been Answered!
Angelina Hesse
• Development of Agar
Used to Grow
Microorganisms.
Edward
Jenner
Smallpox
Variolation
Jenner Performs the First Vaccination
Benjamin Franklin
Paul Ehrlich
Worked in Koch’s Lab
doing Differential Staining
Speculated at a Chemical
Might Selectively Target
Specific Cells and Kill
Them.
Developed the Discipline
of Chemotherapy.
Alexander
Fleming
Discovered Lysozyme
Noted that Mold Might
Kill Bacteria
Ernst
Chain
Developed Penicillin.
Early penicillin culture facility at the Sir William
Dunn School of Pathology, Oxford, England.