Interventions for Clients with Cardiac Problems
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Transcript Interventions for Clients with Cardiac Problems
Interventions for Clients with
Cardiac Problems
Heart Failure
Also called pump failure, general
term for the inadequacy of the heart
to pump blood throughout the body;
causes insufficient perfusion of body
tissue with vital nutrients and
oxygen
Left-sided heart failure
Right-sided heart failure
High-output failure
Compensatory Mechanisms
Increased heart rate
Because cardiac output is the product of heart rate and stroke volume,
an increase in heart rate results in an immediate increase in cardiac
output. An increase in heart rate is limited in its ability to compensate
for decreased cardiac output. If heart rate becomes too rapid, diastolic
filling time is limited and cardiac output may start to fall. An increase in
heart rate also significantly increases oxygen demand by the
myocardium. If the heart is poorly perfused because of arteriosclerosis,
heart failure may worsen
Improved stroke volume
Stroke volume is also improved by sympathetic stimulation.
Sympathetic stimulation increases venous return to the heart, which
further stretches the myocardial fibers. This increased stretch is
referred to as preload. In accordance with Starling's law of the heart,
increased myocardial stretch results in more forceful contraction, which
increases stroke volume and cardiac output. After a critical point is
reached, further volume and stretch reduce the force of contraction and
cardiac output
Compensatory Mechanisms
Arterial vasoconstriction
Sympathetic stimulation also results in arterial vasoconstriction.
Constriction of the arteries has the benefit of maintaining blood
pressure and improving tissue perfusion in low-output states.
However, constriction of the arteries increases afterload, the
resistance against which the heart must pump. Afterload is the
major determinant of myocardial oxygen requirements. As afterload
increases, the left ventricle requires more energy to eject its
contents, and stroke volume may decline
Sodium and water retention
Reduced blood flow to the kidneys, a common occurrence in lowoutput states, results in the activation of the renin-angiotensinaldosterone mechanism. Vasoconstriction becomes more
pronounced in response to angiotensin, and aldosterone secretion
causes sodium and water retention. The volume of blood returning
to the left ventricle is further increased by activation of this
mechanism
Compensatory Mechanisms
Myocardial hypertrophy
Myocardial hypertrophy, with or without
chamber dilation, is the final compensatory
mechanism. The walls of the heart thicken to
provide more muscle mass. This results in more
forceful contractions, further increasing cardiac
output. However, cardiac muscle may
hypertrophy more rapidly than collateral
circulation can provide adequate blood supply to
the muscle. Often, a hypertrophied heart is
slightly oxygen deprived
Etiology
Heart failure is caused by systemic
hypertension in 75% of cases.
About one third of clients
experiencing myocardial infarction
also develop heart failure.
Structural heart changes, such as
valvular dysfunction, cause pressure
or volume overload on the heart.
Left-Sided Heart Failure
Manifestations include:
– Weakness
– Fatigue
– Dizziness
– Confusion
– Pulmonary congestion
– Shortness of breath
(Continued)
Left-Sided Heart Failure
(Continued)
– Oliguria
– Organ failure, especially renal failure
– Death
Assessment
Palpation the precordium - increased heart size is common, with a
displacement of the apical impulse to the left.
On auscultation, the nurse may hear a third heart sound (S3) gallop, an
early diastolic filling sound indicating an increase in left ventricular pressure.
A fourth heart sound (S4) can also occur; it is not a sign of failure but is a
reflection of decreased ventricular compliance.
Crackles and wheezes may be present on auscultation of the lungs. Late
inspiratory crackles and fine profuse crackles that repeat themselves from
breath to breath and do not diminish with coughing indicate heart failure.
Crackles usually develop in the bases and spread upward as the condition
worsens. Wheezes indicate a narrowing of the bronchial lumen caused by
engorged pulmonary vessels
Right-Sided Heart Failure
Manifestations include:
– Distended neck veins, increased
abdominal girth
– Hepatomegaly (liver engorgement)
– Hepatojugular reflux
– Ascites
– Dependent edema
– Weight: the most reliable indicator of
fluid gain or loss
Assessments
Laboratory assessment
Radiographic assessment
Electrocardiography – may demonstrate
ventricular hypertrophy, dysrhythmias, and any
degree of myocardial ischemia, injury, or
infarction
Echocardiography - is useful in diagnosing
cardiac valvular changes, pericardial effusion,
chamber enlargement, and ventricular
hypertrophy
Pulmonary artery catheters
Impaired Gas Exchange
Interventions include:
– Ventilation assistance (promotion of the
optimal spontaneous breathing pattern that
maximizes oxygen and carbon dioxide
exchange in the lungs)
– Hemodynamic regulation (optimization of
heart rate, preload, afterload, and
contractility)
– Energy management, diet therapy, drug
therapy
Decreased Cardiac Output
Interventions include:
– Optimization of cardiac output: stroke
volume (determined by preload,
afterload, and contractility) and heart
rate
(Continued)
Decreased Cardiac Output
(Continued)
– Drug therapy including:
Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (
afterload)
Diuretics ( preload)
Human B-type natriuretic peptides (
afterload)
Nitrates
Inotropics
Beta-adrenergic blockers ( preload)
Hemodynamic Regulation
Interventions include:
– Reduce afterload.
– Reduce preload.
– Improve cardiac muscle contractility.
– Administer drugs as prescribed.
– Monitor for therapeutic and adverse
effects.
– Teach client and family drug therapy.
Drugs That Reduce
Afterload
Angiotensin-converting enzyme
(ACE) inhibitors
Human B-type natriuretic peptides
Interventions That Reduce
Preload
Diet therapy
– Fluid, sodium restrictions
Drug therapy
– Diuretics
– Venous vasodilators
Drugs That Enhance
Contractility
Digitalis
– Digitalis toxicity includes anorexia,
fatigue, changes in mental status.
– Monitor heart rate and electrolytes.
Other inotropic drugs including
dobutamine, milrinone, and
levosimendan
Beta-adrenergic blockers
Other Nonsurgical Options
Continuous positive airway pressure
Cardiac resynchronization therapy
Investigative gene therapy
Surgical Management
Newer surgical therapies include the
following:
– Partial left ventriculectomy
– Endoventricular circular patch
– Acorn cardiac support device
– Myosplint
Activity Intolerance
Interventions include:
– Ventilation assistance
– Hemodynamic regulation
– Energy management
– Interdisciplinary interventions, which
regulate energy to prevent fatigue and
optimize function
Potential for Pulmonary
Edema
Interventions include:
– Assess for early signs, such as crackles
in the lung bases, dyspnea at rest,
disorientation, and confusion.
– Rapid-acting diuretics are prescribed,
such as Lasix or Bumex.
– Oxygen is always used.
– Strictly monitor fluid intake and output.
Valvular Heart Disease
Mitral stenosis
Mitral regurgitation (insufficiency)
Mitral valve prolapse
Aortic stenosis
Aortic regurgitation (insufficiency)
Assessment
Client may become suddenly ill or
slowly develop symptoms over many
years.
Question client about attacks of
rheumatic fever, infective
endocarditis, and possibility of IV
drug abuse.
Obtain chest x-ray, echocardiogram,
and exercise tolerance test.
Common Nursing Diagnoses
Decreased Cardiac Output related to
altered stroke volume
Impaired Gas Exchange related to
ventilation perfusion imbalance
Activity Intolerance related to
inability of the heart to meet
metabolic demands during activity
Acute Pain related to physiologic
injury agent (hypoxia)
Nonsurgical Management
Drug therapy, including diuretics,
beta blockers, digoxin, oxygen, and
sometimes nitrates
Prophylactic antibiotic
Management of atrial fibrillation,
cardioversion
Anticoagulant
Rest with limited activity
Surgical Management
Reparative procedures
Balloon valvuloplasty
Direct, or open, commissurotomy
Mitral valve annuloplasty
Replacement procedures
Infective Endocarditis
Microbial infection involving the
endocardium
Occurs primarily with IV drug abuse,
valvular replacements, systemic
infections, or structural cardiac
defects
Possible ports of entry: mouth, skin
rash, lesion, abscess, infections,
surgery, or invasive procedures
including IV line placement
Manifestations
Clinical manifestations usually occur within
2 weeks of a bacteremia.
Assessment usually reveals a recurrent
fever.
Most clients have temperatures from 37.2°
to 39.4° C.
Many older adults remain afebrile.
The severity of symptoms may depend on
the virulence of the infecting organism
Manifestations
Manifestations
Fever associated with chills, night sweats,
malaise and fatigue
Anorexia and weight loss
Cardiac murmur (newly developed or change in
existing)
Development of heart failure
Evidence of systemic embolization
Petechiae
Splinter hemorrhages
Osier's nodes
Janeway's lesions
Splenic infarction
Neurologic changes
Janeway's lesions on the sole of the foot
Splinter hemorrhage lesions in
endocarditis
Interventions
Antimicrobials
Rest, balanced with activity
Supportive therapy for heart failure
Anticoagulants
Surgical management
Pericarditis
Inflammation or alteration of the
pericardium, the membranous sac
that encloses the heart
Dressler’s syndrome
Postpericardiotomy syndrome
Chronic constrictive pericarditis
Assessment
Substernal precordial pain radiating
to left side of the neck, shoulder, or
back
Grating, oppressive pain, aggravated
by breathing, coughing, swallowing
Pain worsened by the supine
position; relieved when the client sits
up and leans forward
Pericardial friction rub
Interventions
Hospitalization for diagnostic
evaluation, observation for
complications, and symptom relief
Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory
drugs
Corticosteroid therapy
Comfortable position, usually sitting
Pericardial drainage
(Continued)
Interventions (Continued)
Chronic pericarditis: radiation or
chemotherapy
Uremic pericarditis: dialysis
Pericardiectomy
Emergency Care of Cardiac Tamponade
Cardiac tamponade — an extreme
emergency
Increased fluid volume
Hemodynamic monitoring
Pericardiocentesis
Pericardial window
Pericardiectomy
Rheumatic Carditis
Sensitivity response that develops
following an upper respiratory tract
infection with group A betahemolytic streptococci
Inflammation in all layers of the
heart
Impaired contractile function of the
myocardium, thickening of the
pericardium, and valvular damage
Clinical Manifestations
Tachycardia
Cardiomegaly
New or changed murmur
Pericardial friction rub
Precordial pain
Changes in electrocardiogram
Indications of heart failure
Existing streptococcal infection
Cardiomyopathy
Subacute or chronic disease of
cardiac muscle
Dilated cardiomyopathy
Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy
Restrictive cardiomyopathy
Interventions
Nonsurgical management
Surgical management
– Cardiomyoplasty
– Heart transplantation