Transcript biopotentialselectrodesSaa

Biopotentials & electrodes
Ali S. Saad
Department of Biomedical Engineering
College of applied medical Sciences
King Saud University
Recording of action potential of an invertebrate nerve axon (a) An electronic
stimulator supplies a brief pulse of current to the axon, strong enough to excite the axon.
A recording of this activity is made at a downstream site via a penetrating micropipet. (b)
The movement artifact is recorded as the tip of the micropipet drives through the
membrane to record resting potential. A short time later, an electrical stimulus is
delivered to the axon; its field effect is recorded instantaneously at downstream
measurement site as the stimulus artifact. The action potential proceeds along the axon at
a constant propagation velocity. The time period L is the latent period or transmission
time from stimulus to recording site.
Na+
Na+
++++
++
----
--
+ + + Outside cell
Plasma membrane
--Inside cell
++++
++
+++
----
--
---
K+
1
K+
Resting phase
3
Na+
Repolarizing phase
Na+
----
--
---
++++
++
+++
++++
++
+++
----
--
---
K+
Depolarizing phase
4
Membrane potential
(mV)
2
K+
2
+50
0
1
Undershoot phase
3
4
-50
-100
t
The role of voltage-gated ion channels in the action potential. The
circled numbers on the action potential correspond to the four
diagrams of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels in a
neuron's plasma membrane.
Theoretical action potential u and membrane ionic conductance
changes for sodium (gNa) and potassium (gK) are obtained by
solving the differential equations developed by Hodgkin and
Huxley for the giant axon of the squid at a bathing medium
temperature of 18.5 ºC. ENa and EK are the Nernst equilibrium
potentials for sodium and potassium across the membrane.
Diagram of network equivalent circuit of a small length (Dz) of an
unmyelinated nerve fiber or a skeletal muscle fiber The membrane proper is
characterized by specific membrane capacitance Cm (mF/cm2) and specific
membrane conductances gNa, gK, and gCl in mS/cm2 (millisiemens/cm2). Here an
average specific leakage conductance is included that corresponds to ionic
current from sources other than Na+ and K+ (for example, Cl-). This term is
usually neglected. The cell cytoplasm is considered simply resistive, as is the
external bathing medium; these media may thus be characterized by the
resistance per unit length ri and ro (/cm), respectively. Here im is the
transmembrane current per unit length (A/cm), and ui and uo are the internal and
external potentials u at point z, respectively.
External medium
Local closed (solenoidal)
lines of current flow
+ + + + + +
- - - - - Axon
- - - - - + + + + + +
+ + + + + + ++-- - - - --++
- - - - - - --++ ++ + ++-Active region
- - - - - - --++ ++ + ++-+ + + + + + ++-- - - - --++
Resting
Repolarized
membrane
membrane
Direction of Depolarized
propagation membrane
(a)
Myelin
sheath
Active
node
Periaxonal
space
Axon
-
+
Cell
Node of Ranvier
(b)
(a) Charge distribution in the vicinity of the active region of
an ummyelinated fiber conducting an impulse. (b) Local
circuit current flow in the myelinated nerve fiber.
Extracellular field
potentials (average of
128 responses) were
recorded at the surface of
an active (1-mmdiameter) frog sciatic
nerve in an extensive
volume conductor. The
potential was recorded
with (a) both motor and
sensory components
excited (Sm + Ss), (b) only
motor nerve components
excited (Sm), and (c) only
sensory nerve
components excited (Ss).
Schematic diagram of a muscle-length control system for a
peripheral muscle (biceps) (a) Anatomical diagram of limb
system, showing interconnections. (b) Block diagram of control
system.
V(t)
S1
S2
-
+
+
-
R
Reference
Muscle
D
S2
V(t)
L2
t
Velocity = u =
L1- L2
1 mV
S1
D
V(t)
L1
2 ms
Measurement of neural conduction velocity via measurement
of latency of evoked electrical response in muscle. The nerve
was stimulated at two different sites a known distance D
apart.
Sensory nerve action potentials evoked from median nerve of a healthy subject at
elbow and wrist after stimulation of index finger with ring electrodes. The
potential at the wrist is triphasic and of much larger magnitude than the delayed
potential recorded at the elbow. Considering the median nerve to be of the same
size and shape at the elbow as at the wrist, we find that the difference in
magnitude and waveshape of the potentials is due to the size of the volume
conductor at each location and the radial distance of the measurement point from
the neural source.
The H reflex The four traces show potentials evoked by
stimulation of the medial popliteal nerve with pulses of increasing
magnitude (the stimulus artifact increases with stimulus
magnitude). The later potential or H wave is a low-threshold
response, maximally evoked by a stimulus too weak to evoke the
muscular response (M wave). As the M wave increases in
magnitude, the H wave diminishes.
Diagram of a single motor unit (SMU), which consists of a single motoneuron
and the group of skeletal muscle fibers that it innervates. Length transducers in
the muscle activate sensory nerve fibers whose cell bodies are located in the
dorsal root ganglion. These bipolar neurons send axonal projections to the spinal
cord that divide into a descending and an ascending branch. The descending
branch enters into a simple reflex arc with the motor neuron, while the
ascending branch conveys information regarding current muscle length to higher
centers in the CNS via ascending nerve fiber tracts in the spinal cord and brain
stem.
Motor unit action potentials
from normal dorsal
interosseus muscle during
progressively more
powerful contractions. In
the interference pattern (c ),
individual units can no
longer be clearly
distinguished. (d)
Interference pattern during
very strong muscular
contraction. Time scale is
10 ms per dot.
Distribution of specialized conductive tissues in the
atria and ventricles, showing the impulse-forming
and conduction system of the heart. The rhythmic
cardiac impulse originates in pacemaking cells in
the sinoatrial (SA) node, located at the junction of
the superior vena cava and the right atrium. Note
the three specialized pathways (anterior, middle,
and posterior internodal tracts) between the Sa and
atrioventricular (AV) nodes. Bachmann's bundle
(interatrial tract) comes off the anterior internodal
tract leading to the left atrium. The impulse passes
from the SA node in an organized manner through
specialized conducting tracts in the atria to activate
first the right and then the left atrium. Passage of
the impulse is delayed at the AV node before it
continues into the bundle of His, the right bundle
branch, the common left bundle branch, the anterior
and posterior divisions of the left bundle branch,
and the Purkinje network. The right bundle branch
runs along the right side of the interventricular
septum to the apex of the right ventricle before it
gives off significant branches. The left common
bundle crosses to the left side of the septum and
splits into the anterior division (which is thin and
long and goes under the aortic valve in the outflow
tract to the anterolateral papillary muscle) and the
posterior division (which is wide and short and
goes to the posterior papillary muscle lying in the
inflow tract).
Figure 4.13 Representative electric activity from various regions of the heart. The
bottom trace is a scalar ECG, which has a typical QRS amplitude of 1-3 mV. (© Copyright
1969 CIBA Pharmaceutical Company, Division of CIBAGEIGY Corp. Reproduced, with
permission, from The Ciba Collection of Medical Illustrations, by Frank H. Netter, M. D.
All rights reserved.)
Figure 4.14 The cellular architecture of myocardial fibers Note the centroid nuclei
and transverse intercalated disks between cells.
Figure 4.15 Isochronous lines of ventricular activation of the human heart Note the nearly
closed activation surface at 30 ms into the QRS complex. (Modified from "The Biophysical Basis
for Electrocardiography," by R. Plonsey, in CRC Critical Reviews in Bioengineering, 1, 1, p.5,
1971, © The Chemical Rubber Co., 1971. Used by permission of The Chemical Rubber Co. Based
on data by D. Durrer et al., "Total excitation of the Isolated Human Heart, "1970, Circulation, 41,
899-912, by permission of the American Heart Association, Inc.)
Figure 4.17 Atrioventricular block
(a) Complete heart block. Cells in
the AV node are dead and activity
cannot pass from atria to ventricles.
Atria and ventricles beat
independently, ventricles being
driven by an ectopic (other-thannormal) pacemaker. (B) AV block
wherein the node is diseased
(examples include rheumatic heart
disease and viral infections of the
heart). Although each wave from the
atria reaches the ventricles, the AV
nodal delay is greatly increased.
This is first-degree heart block.
(Adapted from Brendan Phibbs, The
Human Heart, 3rd ed., St. Louis:
The C. V. Mosby Company, 1975.)
Figure 4.18 Normal ECG followed by an ectopic beat An irritable focus, or ectopic
pacemaker, within the ventricle or specialized conduction system may discharge, producing
an extra beat, or extrasystole, that interrupts the normal rhythm. This extrasystole is also
referred to as a premature ventricular contraction (PVC). (Adapted from Brendan Phibbs,
The Human Heart, 3rd ed., St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1975.)
Figure 4.19 (a)
Paroxysmal tachycardia.
An ectopic focus may
repetitively discharge at a
rapid regular rate for
minutes, hours, or even
days. (B) Atrial flutter.
The atria begin a very
rapid, perfectly regular
"flapping" movement,
beating at rates of 200 to
300 beats/min. (Adapted
from Brendan Phibbs, The
Human Heart, 3rd ed., St.
Louis: The C. V. Mosby
Company, 1975.)
Figure 4.20 (a) Atrial fibrillation. The atria stop their regular beat and begin a feeble,
uncoordinated twitching. Concomitantly, low-amplitude, irregular waves appear in the ECG,
as shown. This type of recording can be clearly distinguished from the very regular ECG
waveform containing atrial flutter. (b) Ventricular fibrillation. Mechanically the ventricles
twitch in a feeble, uncoordinated fashion with no blood being pumped from the heart. The
ECG is likewise very uncoordinated, as shown (Adapted from Brendan Phibbs, The Human
Heart, 3rd ed., St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1975.)
Figure 4.22 The transparent contact lens contains one electrode, shown here on
horizontal section of the right eye. Reference electrode is placed on the right temple.
Figure 4.23 Vertebrate electroretinogram
The human
corneal
electroretinogram.
A 10 ms flash in
quanta/deg2 yields
scotopic threshold
respone (STR), the
postphotoreceptor
al b-wave, and the
inner layer awave.
Figure 4.27 (a) Different types of normal EEG waves. (b) Replacement of alpha rhythm by
an asynchronous discharge when patient opens eyes. (c) Representative abnormal EEG
waveforms in different types of epilepsy. (From A. C. Guyton, Structure and Function of the
Nervous System, 2nd ed., Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders, 1972; used with permission.)
Figure 4.28 The 10-20 electrode system This system is recommended by the International
Federation of EEG Societies. (From H. H. Jasper, "The Ten-Twenty Electrode System of the
International Federation in Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology," EEG
Journal, 1958, 10 (Appendix), 371-375.)
Figure 4.29 The electroencephalographic changes that occur as a human subject
goes to sleep The calibration marks on the right represent 50 mV. (From H. H. Jasper,
"Electrocephalography," in Epilepsy and Cerebral Localization, edited by W. G. Penfield
and T. C. Erickson. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 1941.)
Figure 5.1 Electrode-electrolyte interface The current crosses it from left to right. The
electrode consists of metallic atoms C. The electrolyte is an aqueous solution containing
cations of the electrode metal C+ and anions A-.
Figure 5.2 A silver/silver chloride electrode, shown in cross section.
Figure 5.3 Sintered Ag/AgCl electrode.
Figure 5.4 Equivalent circuit for a biopotential electrode in contact with an electrolyte
Ehc is the half-cell potential, Rd and Cd make up the impedance associated with the electrodeelectrolyte interface and polarization effects, and Rs is the series resistance associated with
interface effects and due to resistance in the electrolyte.
Figure 5.5 Impedance as a function of frequency for Ag electrodes coated with an electrolytically
deposited AgCl layer. The electrode area is 0.25 cm2. Numbers attached to curves indicate the
number of mAs for each deposit. (From L. A. Gedders, L. E. Baker, and A. G. Moore, "Optimum
Electrolytic Chloriding of Silver Electrodes," Medical and Biological Engineering, 1969, 7,
pp.49-56.)
Figure 5.6 Experimentally determined magnitude of impedance as a function of frequency
for electrodes.
Figure 5.7 Magnified section of skin, showing the various layers (Copyright © 1977 by
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Reprinted with permission, from IEEE
Trans. Biomed. Eng., March 1977, vol. BME-24, no. 2, pp. 134-139.)
Ehe
Electrode
Cd
Rd
Gel
Sweat glands
and ducts
Rs
Ese
EP
Epidermis
Ce
Dermis and
subcutaneous layer
Re
CP
RP
Ru
Figure 5.8 A body-surface electrode is placed against skin, showing the total electrical
equivalent circuit obtained in this situation. Each circuit element on the right is at
approximately the same level at which the physical process that it represents would be in the
left-hand diagram.
Figure 5.9 Body-surface biopotential electrodes (a) Metal-plate electrode used for application
to limbs. (b) Metal-disk electrode applied with surgical tape. (c) Disposable foam-pad electrodes,
often used with electrocardiograph monitoring apparatus.
Figure 5.10 A metallic suction electrode is often used as a precordial electrode on clinical
electrocardiographs.
Metal disk
Insulating
package
Double-sided
Adhesive-tape
ring
Electrolyte gel
in recess
(a)
(b)
Snap coated with Ag-AgCl
Plastic cup
External snap
Gel-coated sponge
Plastic disk
Dead cellular material
Foam pad Tack
Capillary loops Germinating layer
(c)
Figure 5.11 Examples of floating metal body-surface electrodes (a) Recessed electrode with
top-hat structure. (b) Cross-sectional view of the electrode in (a). (c) Cross-sectional view of
a disposable recessed electrode of the same general structure shown in Figure 5.9(c). The
recess in this electrode is formed from an open foam disk, saturated with electrolyte gel and
placed over the metal electrode.
Figure 5.12 Flexible bodysurface electrodes (a)
Carbon-filled silicone rubber
electrode. (b) Flexible thinfilm neonatal electrode (after
Neuman, 1973). (c) Crosssectional view of the thin-film
electrode in (b). [Parts (b) and
(c) are from International
Federation for Medical and
Biological Engineering. Digest
of the 10th ICMBE, 1973.]
Figure 5.13 Needle and wire
electrodes for percutaneous
measurement of biopotentials (a)
Insulated needle electrode. (b)
Coaxial needle electrode. (c)
Bipolar coaxial electrode. (d) Finewire electrode connected to
hypodermic needle, before being
inserted. (e) Cross-sectional view
of skin and muscle, showing coiled
fine-wire electrode in place.
Figure 5.14 Electrodes for detecting fetal electrocardiogram during labor, by means
of intracutaneous needles (a) Suction electrode. (b) Cross-sectional view of suction
electrode in place, showing penetration of probe through epidermis. (c) Helical electrode,
which is attached to fetal skin by corkscrew type action.
Figure 5.15 Implantable electrodes for detecting biopotentials (a) Wire-loop electrode.
(b) Silver-sphere cortical-surface potential electrode. (c) Multielement depth electrode.
Insulated leads
Contacts
Ag/AgCl electrodes
Contacts
Ag/AgCl electrodes
Base
Insulated leads
(b)
Base
(a)
Tines
Exposed tip
Figure 5.16 Examples of microfabricated electrode
arrays. (a) One-dimensional plunge electrode array
(after Mastrototaro et al., 1992), (b) Two-dimensional
array, and (c) Three-dimensional array (after Campbell
et al., 1991).
Base
(c)
Figure 5.17 The structure of a metal microelectrode for intracellular recordings.
Figure 5.18 Structures of two supported metal microelectrodes (a) Metal-filled glass
micropipet. (b) Glass micropipet or probe, coated with metal film.
Figure 5.19 A glass micropipet electrode filled with an electrolytic solution (a) Section of
fine-bore glass capillary. (b) Capillary narrowed through heating and stretching. (c) Final
structure of glass-pipet microelectrode.
Bonding pads
Insulated
lead vias
SiO2 insulated
Au probes
Exposed
electrodes
Silicon probe
Si substrate
Exposed tips
(a)
(b)
Miniature
insulating
chamber
Hole
Channels
Silicon chip
Lead via
Silicon probe
(c)
Electrode
Contact
metal film
(d)
Figure 5.20 Different types of microelectrodes fabricated using microelectronic technology (a)
Beam-lead multiple electrode. (Based on Figure 7 in K. D. Wise, J.B. Angell, and A. Starr, "An
Integrated Circuit Approach to Extracellular Microelectrodes." Reprinted with permission from
IEEE Trans. Biomed. Eng., 1970, BME-17, pp. 238-246. Copyright (C) 1970 by the institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers.) (b) Multielectrode silicon probe after Drake et al. (c)
Multiple-chamber electrode after Prohaska et al. (d) Peripheral-nerve electrode based on the design
of Edell.
N = Nucleus
C = Cytoplasm
A
Insulation
Cell
membrane
Cd
+ +
+- - +C
+++- N
+ +- - - - + + + +
(a)
Metal rod
Tissue fluid
Membrane
potential
+
-- +
- +
+
-- +
- +
- -- +
+ +
B
Rs
B
Cd2
Reference
electrode
Figure 5.21 Equivalent circuit of metal
microelectrode (a) Electrode with tip placed
within a cell, showing origin of distributed
capacitance. (b) Equivalent circuit for the
situation in (a). (c) Simplified equivalent circuit.
(From L. A. Geddes, Electrodes and the
Measurement of Bioelectric Events, WileyInterscience, 1972. Used with permission of John
Wiley and Sons, New York.)
A
Cw
Rma
Cmb
Cma
Rmb
Cdi
Ema
Ri
Emb
Re
Emp
(b)
Rma
Emp
Membrane
and
action
potential
A
Cma
0
Cd + Cw
E
Ema - Emb
(c)
B
A
To amplifier
B
A
Glass
Internal electrode
Electrolyte
in
micropipet
Rma
Cma
Ema
Stem
Environmental
fluid
Taper
Cell
Tip
membrane
+
+ - + - N
+ + +- +
(a)
Reference
Cd
electrode
+ + +
+
+
- - -+
+
Cytoplasm
- +
N = Nucleus
- +
- - - - +
+ + + +
Cell membrane
Figure 5.22 Equivalent circuit of glass micropipet
microelectrode (a) Electrode with its tip placed within
a cell, showing the origin of distributed capacitance. (b)
Equivalent circuit for the situation in (a). (c) Simplified
equivalent circuit. (From L. A. Geddes, Electrodes and
the Measurement of Bioelectric Events, WileyInterscience, 1972. Used with permission of John Wiley
and Sons, New York.)
B
Rt
Cmb
Cd
Ej
Emb
Et
(b)
Rmb
Ri
Emp
Re
Rt
Membrane
and
action
potential
(c)
0
Emp
Em = Ej + Et + Ema- Emb
A
Cd = Ct
Em
B
i
t
u
Polarization
potential
Ohmic
potential
Figure 5.23 Current and
voltage waveforms seen with
electrodes used for electric
stimulation (a) Constantcurrent stimulation. (b)
Constant-voltage stimulation.
Polarization
potential
t
(a)
u
t
i
Polarization
Polarization
t
(b)
Questions for Biopotentials & electrodes. You should be able to:
Explain the origin of biopotentials
Explain nerve propagation
Explain cardiac excitation
Explain cardiac arrhythmias
Describe brain waves
Explain electrode offset voltages
Explain electrode polarization
Model electrode impedance versus frequency
Minimize skin-electrode motion artifacts
Describe good electrode construction
Describe microelectrodes
Sketch electrode voltages during current flow
J. G. Webster (ed.), Medical instrumentation: application and
design, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1998.