Transcript Chapter 9 - La Sierra University

electronics fundamentals
circuits, devices, and applications
THOMAS L. FLOYD
DAVID M. BUCHLA
chapter 9
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
The Basic Capacitor
Capacitors are one of the fundamental passive
components. In its most basic form, it is composed of
two conductive plates separated by an insulating
dielectric.
The ability to store charge is the definition of
capacitance.
Conductors
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
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Dielectric
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Chapter 9
The Basic Capacitor
VVSS
The charging
process…
Leads

Initially
Source
Fully
Charging
charged
removed
uncharged



++
+++
+++
+++
++
+++

 ++
+
++
+
++
+
+
+
AA +
A

 +
Dielec tric


++
Plates


+
+




+

+  Elec trons



+ B

BB




A capacitor with stored charge can act as a temporary battery.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitance
Capacitance is the ratio of charge to voltage
C
Q
V
Rearranging, the amount of charge on a
capacitor is determined by the size of the
capacitor (C) and the voltage (V).
Q  CV
If a 22 mF capacitor is connected to
a 10 V source, the charge is 220 mC
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitance
An analogy:
Imagine you store rubber bands in a
bottle that is nearly full.
You could store more rubber bands
(like charge or Q) in a bigger bottle
(capacitance or C) or if you push
them in more (voltage or V). Thus,
Q  CV
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitance
A capacitor stores energy in the form of an electric field
that is established by the opposite charges on the two
plates. The energy of a charged capacitor is given by the
equation
W
1
CV 2
2
where
W = the energy in joules
C = the capacitance in farads
V = the voltage in volts
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitance
The capacitance of a capacitor depends on
three physical characteristics.
 A
C  8.85 1012 F/m  r 
 d 
C is directly proportional to
the relative dielectric constant
and the plate area.
C is inversely proportional to
the distance between the plates
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitance
Find the capacitance of a 4.0 cm diameter
sensor immersed in oil if the plates are
separated by 0.25 mm.  r  4.0 for oil 
 r A 
C  8.85 10 F/m 

d


2
2
3
2
The plate area is A  πr   0.02 m  1.26 10 m
12


The distance between the plates is 0.25 103 m
  4.0  1.26 103 m 2 
C  8.85 1012 F/m 

0.25 103 m

Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla

  178 pF


© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
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Chapter 9
Capacitor types
Mica
Mica capacitors are small with high working voltage.
The working voltage is the voltage limit that cannot
be exceeded.
Foil
Mic a
Foil
Mic a
Foil
Mic a
Foil
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Chapter 9
Capacitor types
Ceramic disk
Ceramic disks are small nonpolarized capacitors They
have relatively high capacitance due to high r.
Lead wire soldered
to silver elec trode
Solder
Ceram ic
dielec tric
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
Dipped phenolic c oating
Silv er elec trodes deposited on
top and bottom of c eram ic disk
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitor types
Plastic Film
Plastic film capacitors are small and nonpolarized. They
have relatively high capacitance due to larger plate area.
High-purity
foil elec trodes
Plastic film
dielec tric
Outer wrap of
polyester film
Capac itor sec tion
(alternate strips of
film dielec tric and
Lead wire
foil elec trodes)
Solder c oated end
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
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© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitor types
Electrolytic (two types)
Electrolytic capacitors have very high capacitance but
they are not as precise as other types and tend to have
more leakage current. Electrolytic types are polarized.
+
_
Al electrolytic
Ta electrolytic
Symbol for any electrolytic capacitor
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitor types
Variable
Variable capacitors typically have small capacitance
values and are usually adjusted manually.
A solid-state device that is used as a variable
capacitor is the varactor diode; it is adjusted with an
electrical signal.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitor labeling
+ ++ +
47VTTMFVTT
Capacitors use several labeling methods. Small
capacitors values are frequently stamped on them such
as .001 or .01, which have implied units of microfarads.
Electrolytic capacitors have larger
values, so are read as mF. The unit is usually
stamped as mF, but some older ones may be
shown as MF or MMF).
. 022
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitor labeling
A label such as 103 or 104 is read as 10x103
(10,000 pF) or 10x104 (100,000 pF)
respectively. (Third digit is the multiplier.)
When values are marked as 330 or 6800, the
units are picofarads.
222
2200
What is the value of
each capacitor? Both are 2200 pF.
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Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Series capacitors
When capacitors are connected in series, the total
capacitance is smaller than the smallest one. The
general equation for capacitors in series is
CT 
1
1
1
1
1


 ... 
C1 C2 C3
CT
The total capacitance of two capacitors is
CT 
1
1
1

C1 C2
…or you can use the product-over-sum rule
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Series capacitors
If a 0.001 mF capacitor is connected
in series with an 800 pF capacitor,
the total capacitance is 444 pF
C
1
0
.0
0
1µ
F
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
C
2
8
0
0p
F
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River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Parallel capacitors
When capacitors are connected in parallel, the total
capacitance is the sum of the individual capacitors.
The general equation for capacitors in parallel is
CT  C1  C2  C3  ...Cn
If a 0.001 mF capacitor is
connected in parallel with
an 800 pF capacitor, the
total capacitance is 1800 pF
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
C
1
C
2
0
.0
0
1
µ
F
8
0
0
p
F
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Vfinal
The RC time constant
When a capacitor is charged
through a series resistor and
dc source, the charging curve
is exponential.
0
t
(a) Capacitor c harging voltage
Iinitial
R
C
0
(b) Charging current
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
t
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River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
The RC time constant
When a capacitor is discharged
through a resistor, the
discharge curve is also an
exponential. (Note that the
current is negative.)
R
Vinitial
t
0
(a) Capacitor disc harging voltage
Iinitial
C
0
t
(b) Disc harging current
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
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© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
The RC time constant
The same shape curves are
seen if a square wave is
used for the source.
What is the shape of the
current curve?
VS
VC
R
VS
C
VR
The current has the same shape as VR.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Universal exponential curves
τ  RC
100%
95%
99%
Rising exponential
63%
60%
40%
37%
Falling exponential
20%
14%
5%
0
0
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
98%
86%
80%
Percent of final value
Specific values for
current and voltage
can be read from a
universal curve. For
an RC circuit, the
time constant is
1t
2%
2t
3t
4t
Number of time constants
1%
5t
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Universal exponential curves
The universal curves can be applied to general formulas for
the voltage (or current) curves for RC circuits. The general
voltage formula is
v =VF + (Vi  VF)et/RC
VF = final value of voltage
Vi = initial value of voltage
v = instantaneous value of voltage
The final capacitor voltage is greater than the initial
voltage when the capacitor is charging, or less than the
initial voltage when it is discharging.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitive reactance
Capacitive reactance is the opposition to ac by a
capacitor. The equation for capacitive reactance is
1
XC 
2πfC
The reactance of a 0.047 mF capacitor when a
frequency of 15 kHz is applied is 226 W
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitive reactance
When capacitors are in series, the total reactance is the sum of the
individual reactances. That is,
X C(tot )  X C1  X C2  X C3    X Cn
Assume three 0.033 mF capacitors are in series with a 2.5 kHz
ac source. What is the total reactance?
The reactance of each capacitor is
1
1

 1.93 kW
2πfC 2π  2.5 kHz  0.033 μF 
X C(tot )  X C1  X C2  X C3
XC 
 1.93 kW  1.93 kW  1.93 kW  5.79 kW
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitive reactance
When capacitors are in parallel, the total reactance is the reciprocal
of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual reactances. That is,
X C(tot ) 
1
1
1
1
1


  
X C1 X C2 X C3
X Cn
If the three 0.033 mF capacitors from the last example are
placed in parallel with the 2.5 kHz ac source, what is the total
reactance?
The reactance of each capacitor is 1.93 kW
X C(tot ) 
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
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1
1

 643 W
1
1
1
1
1
1


+
+
X C1 X C2 X C3 1.93 kW 1.93 kW 1.93 kW
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitive Voltage Divider
Two capacitors in series are commonly used as a capacitive voltage
divider. The capacitors split the output voltage in proportion to their
reactance (and inversely proportional to their capacitance).
What is the output voltage for the capacitive voltage divider?
1
1

 4.82 kW
2πfC1 2π  33 kHz 1000 pF 
1
1


 482 W
2πfC2 2π  33 kHz  0.01 μF 
X C1 
XC2
X C (tot )  X C1  X C 2
 4.82 kW  482 W  5.30 kW
Vout
 XC2 
 482 W 

Vs  

1.0 V = 91 mV
X

 5.30 kW 
 C (tot ) 
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
1.0 V
f = 33 kHz
C1
1000 pF
C2
Vout
0.01 µF
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitive Voltage Divider
Instead of using a ratio of reactances in the capacitor voltage divider
equation, you can use a ratio of the total series capacitance to the
output capacitance (multiplied by the input voltage). The result is
the same. For the problem presented in the last slide,
C(tot ) 
Vout
1000 pF 0.01 μF  909 pF
C1C2

C1  C2
1000 pF  0.01 μF
C 
 909 pF 
  (tot ) Vs  
1.0 V = 91 mV
C
0.01
μF


 2 
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
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C1
1000 pF
1.0 V
f = 33 kHz
C2
Vout
0.01 µF
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Capacitive phase shift
When a sine wave
is applied to a
capacitor, there is a
phase shift between
voltage and current
such that current
always leads the
voltage by 90o.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
VC
0
o
90
I
0
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Power in a capacitor
Energy is stored by the capacitor during a portion of the ac
cycle and returned to the source during another portion of
the cycle.
Voltage and current are always 90o out of phase.
For this reason, no true power is dissipated by a capacitor,
because stored energy is returned to the circuit.
The rate at which a capacitor stores or returns
energy is called reactive power. The unit for reactive
power is the VAR (volt-ampere reactive).
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Power supply filtering
There are many applications for capacitors. One is in
filters, such as the power supply filter shown here.
Rectifier
60 Hz ac
C
Load
resistance
The filter smoothes the
pulsating dc from the
rectifier.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Coupling capacitors
Coupling capacitors are used to pass an ac signal
from one stage to another while blocking dc.
3V
0V
0V
+V
The capacitor isolates dc
Input
between the amplifier stages,
preventing dc in one stage from
affecting the other stage.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
C
R1
Amplifier
stage 1
Amplifier
stage 2
Output
R2
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Bypass capacitors
Another application is to bypass an ac signal to ground
but retain a dc value. This is widely done to affect gain
in amplifiers.
dc plus
ac
0V
dc only
0V
The bypass capacitor places
point A at ac ground, keeping
only a dc value at point A.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
R1
A
Point in circuit where R
2
only dc is required
C
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Selected Key Terms
Capacitor An electrical device consisting of two conductive
plates separated by an insulating material and
possessing the property of capacitance.
Dielectric The insulating material between the conductive
plates of a capacitor.
Farad The unit of capacitance.
RC time A fixed time interval set by the R and C values,
constant that determine the time response of a series RC
circuit. It equals the product of the resistance
and the capacitance.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Selected Key Terms
Capacitive The opposition of a capacitor to sinusoidal
reactance current. The unit is the ohm.
Instantaneous The value of power in a circuit at a given
power (p) instant of time.
True power The power that is dissipated in a circuit
(Ptrue) usually in the form of heat.
Reactive The rate at which energy is alternately stored
power (Pr ) and returned to the source by a capacitor. The
unit is the VAR.
VAR The unit of reactive power.
(volt-ampere
reactive)
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
1. The capacitance of a capacitor will be larger if
a. the spacing between the plates is increased.
b. air replaces oil as the dielectric.
c. the area of the plates is increased.
d. all of the above.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
2. The capacitance of two capacitors connected in series
will is analogous to
a. two resistors connected in series
b. two resistors connected in parallel
c. none of the above.
d. all of the above.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
3. Electrolytic capacitors are useful in applications where
a. a precise value of capacitance is required.
b. low leakage current is required.
c. large capacitance is required.
d. all of the above.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
4. If a 0.015 mF capacitor is in series with a 6800 pF
capacitor, the total capacitance is
a. 1568 pF.
b. 4678 pF.
c. 6815 pF.
d. 0.022 mF.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
5. Two capacitors that are initially uncharged are connected
in series with a dc source. Compared to the larger
capacitor, the smaller capacitor will have
a. the same charge.
b. more charge.
c. less voltage.
d. the same voltage.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
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© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
6. When a capacitor is connected through a resistor to a dc
voltage source, the charge on the capacitor will reach 50%
of its final charge in
a. less than one time constant.
b. exactly one time constant.
c. greater than one time constant.
d. answer depends on the amount of voltage.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
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© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
7. When a capacitor is connected through a series resistor
and switch to a dc voltage source, the voltage across the
resistor after the switch is closed has the shape of
a. a straight line.
b. a rising exponential.
c. a falling exponential.
d. none of the above.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
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© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
8. The capacitive reactance of a 100 mF capacitor to 60 Hz
is
a. 6.14 kW.
b. 265 W.
c. 37.7 W.
d. 26.5 W.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
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© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
9. If an sine wave from a function generator is applied to a
capacitor, the current will
a. lag voltage by 90o.
b. lag voltage by 45o.
c. be in phase with the voltage.
d. none of the above.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
10. When a capacitor is used to pass an AC signal while
removing DC, it is a
a. decoupling capacitor.
b. ripple filter capacitor.
c. bypass capacitor.
d. coupling capacitor.
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
© 2010 Pearson Education, Upper Saddle
River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.
Chapter 9
Quiz
Answers:
Electronics Fundamentals 8th edition
Floyd/Buchla
1. c
6. a
2. b
7. c
3. c
8. d
4. b
9. d
5. a
10. d
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River, NJ 07458. All Rights Reserved.