Transcript (((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))

Chapter Four
From Word to Text
1
Chapter Four
From Word to Text

What is syntax?
2
1. Syntactic relations




Syntactic relations can be analysed
into three kinds:
positional relations
relations of substitutability
relations of co-occurrence
3
1.1 Positional Relation



I left the classroom after I finished my
homework.
After I finished my homework, I left the
classroom .
The learners are having an English
lesson.
4


Our beautiful country is developing
quickly.
The girl reading newspaper in the
classroom is Mary.
5


Had you helped me yesterday, I would
have finished my work.
If it rains tomorrow, we will put off our
meeting.
6

On the top of hill stands a big house.

Only in this way can you pass the exam.
7
5 basic sentences

1. Subject (主语) ＋ Verb (谓语)

He smiled
8


2. Subject(主语) ＋ Verb (谓语) ＋
Object (宾语)
Tom is watching TV.
9
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

3. Subject (主语) ＋ Link. V(系动词) ＋
Predicate(表语)
He is a worker.
My job is to look after children.
10


4. Subject(主语)＋Verb(谓语)＋ Indirect
object(间接宾语)＋Direct object (直接宾
语)
My mother bought me a book.
11



5. Subject(主语)＋Verb (动词)＋Object
(宾语)＋Complement(补语)
He asked me to close the window.
Tom made the whole class laugh.
12
1.2 Relation of Substitutability

Example.
13
1.2 Relation of Substitutability

The ______ smiles.
boy
girl
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15

What’s the definition of substitutability.
16

The RELATION OF
SUBSTITUTABILITY refers to
classes or sets of words
substitutable for each other
grammatically in sentences with
the same structure.
17
1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence

Example
18
19
Definition

It means that words of different
sets of clauses may permit, or
require, the occurrence of a word
of another set or class to form a
sentence or a particular part of a
sentence.
20
1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence

For instance, a nominal phrase can
be preceded by a determiner and
adjective(s) and followed by a
verbal phrase.
21
2. Grammatical construction and its
constituents
2.1 Grammatical Construction

GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION or
CONSTRUCT
22
2.2 Immediate Constituents

The girl ate the apple,
S (A),


(B), the girl
(C) ate the apple
23

CONSTITUENT is a term used in
structural sentence analysis for
every linguistic unit, which is a
part of a larger linguistic unit.
Several constituents together form
a construction: for example, in the
sentence
24
A (Sentence)
B
The girl
C
ate the apple
25


Constituents can be joined together
with other constituents to form
larger units.
If two constituents, in the case of the
example above, B (the girl) and C
(ate the apple), are joined to form a
hierarchically higher constituent A
(“S” , here a sentence ), then B and C
are said to be immediate
constituents of A.
26
A (Sentence)
B
The girl
C
ate the apple
27



This tree contains three Nodes.
The top-most node, A, is the mother
of the two lower nodes, B and C.
B and C are daughters of the same
mother, and so we refer to them as
sister nodes. (P87)
28

To dismantle a grammatical
construction in this way is called
IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT
ANALYSIS or IC analysis.
29


The immediate constituents themselves
can be constructions of specific types,
for instance, the nominal phrase “The
girl” can be further analysed into “The
(Determiner) + girl (Noun)”.
Thus, “The girl” is the construction of a
nominal phrase, whereas “The” and
“girl” are its constituents.
30
Word-level
Phrasal
N= noun
A=adjective
V=verb
P=preposition
Det=determiner
Adv=adverb
Conj=conjunctio
n
NP=noun phrase
AP=adjective phrase
VP=verb phrase
PP=preposition
phrase
S=sentence or clause
31
S
Tree diagram
NP
Det
VP
N
V
NP
Det
N
The girl ate the apple
The girl ate the apple
32

The whole class are reading textbooks.

Tom watches live games.

The teacher gave a wonderful speech.
33
Bracketing


(((The)
(girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))
[[[The]
[girl]] [[ate] [[the] [apple]]]]
34

In contrast to tree diagram,
BRACKETING is not so common,
but it is an economic notation in
representing the constituent
structure of a grammatical unit.
35

Tom watched the wonderful program.

The teacher bought a beautiful clothes.
36

Classroom exercise.
37
Consideration of Ideological and Political Theory
Course Teaching Based on Postgraduate
Entrance Examinations:
Taking Lijiang College of Guangxi Normal
University as an Example
38

[Abstract] The ideological and political
theory belongs to the public course of
postgraduate entrance examinations,
whose assessment principle is based on
what to learn. The evaluation covers
compulsory courses and elective courses，
focusing on the core content of the course
，checking the student understanding,
applying and analyzing ability combining
the social hot spots.
39

So politics theory class teaching should
take the characteristics and
requirements of graduate entrance
examinations into account, cultivating
the ability and laying a good foundation
for students.
40
Review

What is syntax?
Review

How many kinds can syntactic relations
be analyzed? What are they?
1. Syntactic relations




Syntactic relations can be analysed
into three kinds:
positional relations
relations of substitutability
relations of co-occurrence
43
1.2 Relation of Substitutability

Example.
44
1.2 Relation of Substitutability

The ______ smiles.
boy
girl
45
46

What’s the definition of substitutability.
47

The RELATION OF
SUBSTITUTABILITY refers to
classes or sets of words
substitutable for each other
grammatically in sentences with
the same structure.
48
1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence

Example
49
50
Definition

It means that words of different
sets of clauses may permit, or
require, the occurrence of a word
of another set or class to form a
sentence or a particular part of a
sentence.
51
2. Grammatical construction and its
constituents
2.1 Grammatical Construction

GRAMMATICAL CONSTRUCTION or
CONSTRUCT
52
2.2 Immediate Constituents

The girl ate the apple,
S (A),


(B), the girl
(C) ate the apple
53

CONSTITUENT is a term used in
structural sentence analysis for
every linguistic unit, which is a
part of a larger linguistic unit.
Several constituents together form
a construction: for example, in the
sentence
54
A (Sentence)
B
The girl
C
ate the apple
55


Constituents can be joined together
with other constituents to form
larger units.
If two constituents, in the case of the
example above, B (the girl) and C
(ate the apple), are joined to form a
hierarchically higher constituent A
(“S” , here a sentence ), then B and C
are said to be immediate
constituents of A.
56
A (Sentence)
B
The girl
C
ate the apple
57



This tree contains three Nodes.
The top-most node, A, is the mother
of the two lower nodes, B and C.
B and C are daughters of the same
mother, and so we refer to them as
sister nodes. (P87)
58

To dismantle a grammatical
construction in this way is called
IMMEDIATE CONSTITUENT
ANALYSIS or IC analysis.
59


The immediate constituents themselves
can be constructions of specific types,
for instance, the nominal phrase “The
girl” can be further analysed into “The
(Determiner) + girl (Noun)”.
Thus, “The girl” is the construction of a
nominal phrase, whereas “The” and
“girl” are its constituents.
60
Word-level
Phrasal
N= noun
A=adjective
V=verb
P=preposition
Det=determiner
Adv=adverb
Conj=conjunctio
n
NP=noun phrase
AP=adjective phrase
VP=verb phrase
PP=preposition
phrase
S=sentence or clause
61
S
Tree diagram
NP
Det
VP
N
V
NP
Det
N
The girl ate the apple
The girl ate the apple
62

The whole class are reading textbooks.

Tom watches live games.

The teacher gave a wonderful speech.
63
Bracketing


(((The)
(girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))
[[[The]
[girl]] [[ate] [[the] [apple]]]]
64

In contrast to tree diagram,
BRACKETING is not so common,
but it is an economic notation in
representing the constituent
structure of a grammatical unit.
65

Tom watched the wonderful program.

The teacher bought a beautiful clothes.
66

Classroom exercise.
67
Consideration of Ideological and Political Theory
Course Teaching Based on Postgraduate
Entrance Examinations:
Taking Lijiang College of Guangxi Normal
University as an Example
68

[Abstract] The ideological and political
theory belongs to the public course of
postgraduate entrance examinations,
whose assessment principle is based on
what to learn. The evaluation covers
compulsory courses and elective courses，
focusing on the core content of the course
，checking the student understanding,
applying and analyzing ability combining
the social hot spots.
69

So politics theory class teaching should
take the characteristics and
requirements of graduate entrance
examinations into account, cultivating
the ability and laying a good foundation
for students.
70
Review

Chapter Four
From Word to Text
71
2.2 Immediate Constituents

What is Immediate Constituent
Analysis?
72
2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric
Constructions
73
Endocentric Construction

Example:
74
75


ENDOCENTRIC construction is one
whose distribution is functionally
equivalent to that of one or more of
its constituents, i.e., a word or a
group of words, which serves as a
definable CENTRE or HEAD.
Usually noun phrases, verb phrases
and adjective phrases belong to
endocentric types because the
constituent items are subordinate to
the Head.
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
Give examples of endocentric.
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NP

the college students

the tall boy sitting in the corner

Mary’s two brothers
VP

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
Will have completed
Will be reading
Have been given
AP
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Very comfortable

Completely confused
Exocentric

examples
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
EXOCENTRIC

The boy smiled.

He hid behind the door.

He kicked the ball.

John seemed angry.
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

EXOCENTRIC
construction is just the opposite of
endocentric construction. It refers to
a group of syntactically related words
where none of the words is
functionally equivalent to the group
as a whole, that is, there is no
definable “Centre” or “Head” inside
the group.
83





Exocentric construction usually
includes
basic sentence,
prepositional phrase,
predicate (verb + object)
construction,
and connective (be + complement)
construction.
84





Give examples of exocentric.
Tom is running
He gave me a book
He is reading in the classroom
Our teacher completely confused
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2.4 Coordination and
Subordination
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
[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]

[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]

[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]


[AP quite expensive] and [AP very
beautiful]
[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves
John too].
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Coordination

COORDINATION is a common
syntactic pattern in English and other
languages formed by grouping
together two or more categories of
the same type with the help of a
conjunction such as and, but and or .
This phenomenon is known as
coordination.
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Subordination

SUBORDINATION refers to the
process or result of linking linguistic
units so that they have different
syntactic status, one being
dependent upon the other, and
usually a constituent of the other.
89




two dogs
Head
(My brother) can drink (wine).
Head
Swimming in the lake (is fun).
Head
(The pepper was) hot beyond
endurance.
Head
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
Thus the subordinate constituents
are words which modify the Head,
as shown in the underlined parts of
the constructions. Consequently,
they can be called modifiers.
91
Subordinate clauses




Clauses can be used as subordinate
constituents, the three basic types
of subordinate clauses are:
complement clauses
adverbial clauses
relative clauses
92



John believes [that the airplane was
invented by an Irishman].
Elizabeth opened her presents
[before John finished his dinner].
The woman [that I love] is moving to
the south.
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3. Syntactic Function
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3.1 Subject

In some languages, SUBJECT
refers to one of the nouns in the
nominative case.
95

the father loves the son

the son loves the father
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


In English, the subject of a sentence is
often said to be the doer of the action,
Mary slapped John .
A dog bit John.
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

but is clearly wrong in the following
examples:
John was bitten by a dog.
In order to account for the case of
subject in passive voice, we have
two other terms “grammatical
subject” (John) and “logical subject”
(a dog).
98
3.2 Predicate



The boy is running.
Peter broke the glass.
Jane must be mad!
99
Predicate


PREDICATE refers to a major
constituent of sentence structure
in a binary analysis in which all
obligatory constituents other than
the subject were considered
together.
It usually expresses actions,
processes, and states that refer to
the subject.
100
Tag question




A TAG QUESTION is used to seek
confirmation of a statement. It
always contains a pronoun which
refers back to the subject, and
never to any other element in the
sentence.
John loves Mary, doesn’t he?
Mary loves John, doesn’t she?
*John loves Mary, doesn’t she? 101








Nobody phoned while I was out
Everyone has been there
Somebody borrowed my pen yesterday
Everything has been done on how to
prevent the pollution
Nothing is wrong with the machine
He was unsuccessful
Your mother dislikes seeing you with
me
I am late
102









She says that I did it
I suppose that she is careful
I think he is a thief
I don’t believe she has gone home
You had to take the early bus
He used to smoke three cigarettes a
day
Help me to do it
Let’s go skating
Let us have a look at your book
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





He had better do more speaking
It is the first time that he has gone
there
He must be Mr. Chen
He must have stayed at home
yesterday
It can’t have snowed last week
The boy ought to be punished
104
Predicate

Definition of predicate
Agreement with the verb





In the simple present tense, an -s
is added to the verb when a third
person subject is singular.
However, the number and person
of the object or any other element
in the sentence have no effect at
all on the form of the verb:
She angers him.
They anger him.
106
She angers them.
Agreement Exercise

Alice, together with two boys, ____for
having broken the rule in the class.


A. was punished
B. punished C.
were punished D. being punished
No bird and no beast ____ in the lonely
island.
A. are seen B. is seen C. see D. sees







Here ____a new pair of shoes for you.
A. is
B. are
C. have
D. has
When and where to go for the on-salary
holiday ____ yet.
A. are not decided B. have not been decided
C. is not being decided
D. has not beendecided




The assistant and graduate student
____ check the exercise books.
A. help B. helping C. helps D. to help
He is the only one of the students who
_________ a winner of scholarship for
three years.
A. is B. are C. have been D. has been
3.3 Object


Mother bought a doll.
Mother gave my sister a doll.
Ind. Obj. Dir. Obj.
110


OBJECT
is also a term hard to define. Since,
traditionally, subject can be defined
as the doer of the action, object may
refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an
action, and it is further classified into
DIRECT OBJECT and INDIRECT
OBJECT.
111



He died last week.
The match lasted three hours.
He changed trains at Tianjin.
112
4. Category



The term CATEGORY refers to the
defining properties of these general
units:
the categories of the noun, for
example, include number, gender,
case and countability;
and of the verb, for example, tense,
aspect, voice, etc.
113
4.1 Number
114
4.2 Gender
115
4.3 Case
116