Transcript 2_Session 7_Students_24.11.2010x - English-UniSbg

English Linguistics 1
5. Sentences and syntax
What is syntax about?
working definition:
syntax is the system that tells us how to put
'words' together to produce phrases, clauses,
sentences
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focus of the lecture on:
word classes / parts of speech,
grammatical functions / sentence elements,
grammatical categories,
levels: word, phrase, clause, sentence,
simple and complex sentences,
sentence types,
approaches to grammatical description
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5 Sentences and syntax
5.1 What's a sentence, what's in a sentence?
Sentence, syntax, grammar, types,
grammaticality
5.2 Traditional Grammar
5.2.1 Parts of Speech, word classes / Wortarten
5.2.2 Grammatical categories
5.2.3 Sentence elements / Satzglieder
5.2.4 Sentence types
5.2.5 Criticism of traditional grammar
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5.3 Structuralist grammar
5.4 Generative transformational grammar
5.5 Universal grammar
5.6 Functional grammar
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5.1 What's a sentence, what's in a
sentence?
sentence
"a group of words so put together that they
express a thought"
(Merriam–Webster Pocket D.)
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"a group of words that usually contains a
subject and a verb … [and] expresses a
complete idea [...]"
(DCE 2007)
"the largest structural unit which is organized
by the grammar of a language"
(Crystal 1997)
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explain possible difficulties with the terms
used:
'thought'
a beautiful woman
…
I looked at the woman but I did not dare talk
to her.
…
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'subject + verb'
1. The book is on the table.
2. It’s raining.
3. Come in.
4. Some more tea? Yes, please.
1.
2.
3.
4.
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difficulties with spoken language
When they fed the pigs / they all had to stand
well back / - and they were allowed to take the
buckets / - but they weren’t allowed to get
near the pigs / you see / - so they weren’t
happy…
several sentences or one sentence?
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conclusion:
notion of 'sentence' is a useful one
but search for satisfactory definition
– no priority
(over 200 different definitions!)
the aim is to be able to recognize linguistic
constructions as sentences
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the term syntax
Greek
syn
tassein
syntaxis
 …
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definitions of syntax:
"term for the study of the rules governing the
way words are combined to form sentences in
a language [...]
study of the interrelationship between
elements of sentence structure"
(Crystal 1997)
grammar – usually includes 'syntax and
inflectional morphology'
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Types of grammar
• traditional grammar
–
• structuralist
–
mixed/combined
-
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• generative
–
• functional
–
• prescriptive
–
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• descriptive
–
• pedagogical
–
• reference
–
universal / theoretical
–
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Jespersen, Otto (1909-1949) A modern English
grammar on historical principles. 7 vols.
Copenhagen.
Quirk, Randolph et al. (1985) A comprehensive
grammar of the English language. London.
Greenberg, J. H. (1986) The role of universals
in linguistic explanation. Stanford.
Halliday, M.A.K. (1985) An Introduction to
Functional Grammar. London.
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Grammaticality versus adequacy / semantic
and situational acceptability
Grammatikalität vs. Angemessenheit /
semantische und situative Angemessenheit
the syntactic component of a language
decides upon grammaticality, it does not
decide upon truth, falseness, acceptability
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examine the following examples according to
these concepts:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
The sun is cold.
The sun are warm.
The suns is warm.
The sun is warm.
The suns are delicious.
I do not like the moons.
The sun slept.
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Ex.
1. Waiter, we'd like two beers, please.
2. Bring us two beers, please.
comment:
…
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probably literal translations of
1.
2.
pragmatically adequate
1.
2.
[pragmatics / G Pragmatik, Pragmalinguistik]
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role of syntax in the constitution of sentence
meaning,
find out two possible interpretations:
1. Ship sails tomorrow.
2. Time flies, you cannot: Their flight is too erratic.
3. The dogs looked longer than the cat.
4. Avoid infection by killing germs.
5. What has four wheels and flies?
6. British bitter wins in Europe.
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1a
1b
2a
2b
3a
3b
4a
4b
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5a
5b
6a
6b
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5.2 Traditional grammar
Tradition of grammars since Greek and Latin
philosophy of language
two determining features
(1) parts of speech / word classes /
G Wortarten / -klassen
(2) relations between sentence elements /
G Satzglieder
word classes dominant characteristic of modern
foreign language grammars
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5.2.1 Parts of speech, word classes
classification according to formal and notional
features
Dionysios Thrax (2nd cty B.C.)
noun, verb, adjective, adverb, article, pronoun,
preposition, conjunction
Nomen (Substantiv), Verb, Adjektiv, Adverb,
Artikel, Pronomen, Präposition, Konjunktion
later additions: interjection and numeral /
G Interjektion, Numerale
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classification procedures:
1. reference to notional features
noun, verb, adjective
NVAGerman:
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2. reference to formal features
Adv Prep Conj Noun criticism: a good grammar should have the
same criteria for classification of categories
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modern linguistics favours
formal over notional definitions,
provide better means of identifying
constructions
Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe;
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
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Grouping of word classes according to structural
similarities
1. inflexion / inflection / Flexion
• inflexional / inflectional categories
• non-inflexional
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2. expansion / Erweiterbarkeit:
• open class items / offene Klassen
N, V, A, Adv
• closed class items / geschlossene Klassen
Prep, Conj, Pron, Art
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5.2.2 Grammatical categories
in traditional grammar
term 'grammatical category' refers to
the properties of the word classes,
functions signalled by parts of speech
noun:
verb:
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adjective:
G: = categories of noun, + strong / weak
ein grüner Baum vs. der grüne Baum
pronouns: I - me, he - him, she - her, ...
…
adverb:
article: definteness
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history of English
change in the syntactic type of language
Old English
primarily synthetic language
…
Modern English
more analytic language
…
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Other syntactic features
• concord, agreement / G Kongruenz
a form of one word requires a corresponding
form of another
English: singular subject + V present tense
 … (exception …)
Lat, G: ...
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• government (G Rektion)
linkage whereby one word requires a
specific form of another
e.g. Latin, German
Prepostions govern nouns,
…
L ad 
G für 
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verbs require an object or not:
…
…
He made her a cup of coffee.
…
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verbs require gerund or infinitive
Try to avoid
I couldn't help
He promised
We attempted
He stopped
He went on
He longed
He pretended
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travel
laugh
obey
break
talk
say
hear
pity
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in the rush hour.
.
me.
free.
to them.
.
her voice again.
her.
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5.2.3 Sentence elements / Satzglieder
elements / constituents of a sentence
characterized by a specific grammatical
function,
functional elements of clause structure
The burglar sneezed loudly.
Subject Predicate
S
V
A
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Quirk et al (1985)
Subject
Predicate
Duden grammar
Subject
Verb
Object (direct, indirect,
prepositional)
Subjekt
Prädikat
Objekt (Genitiv-, Dativ-,
Akkusativ-, Präpositional-)
complement (subject,
object)
Prädikativum
(Gleichsetzungsnominativ,
-akkusativ)
Adverbialbestimmung
Adverbial
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Basic sentence patterns in declaratives
(without optional elements):
Pattern Subject
SV
SVO
SVC
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The girl
Her
mother
Little
James
Predicate/
Verb
Object(s)
was sleeping
was dressing the baby
(Od)
seemed
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Complement Adverbial
very happy (Cs)
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Pattern Subject Predicate/
Verb
SVA
He
was sitting
SVOO
Mrs
Bates
SVOC
Most
people
SVOA
She
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Object(s)
Complement
Adverbial
on the
table
gave
her children
(Oi)
all her love
(Od)
considered her (Od)
a perfect
mother (Co)
had spent all her life
(Od)
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in the
village
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English: fixed SVO order
German:
main clauses: …
...
...
subordinate clauses:
…,
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sentence elements may be complex
[Most of the almost two thousand people in
her village] S [considered] V [her] Od
[an absolutely perfect mother loved and
admired by her family] Co.
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subordinate clauses may function as sentence
elements
task: 1. determine the subordinate clause
2. decide which function it fulfills
That you are here is a miracle.
We knew (that) he was a lousy driver.
The problem is how to stay away from
trouble.
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adverbial clauses
(semantic classification):
We left as soon as we had finished
breakfast.
He waited where I had left him.
She behaves as if she has problems.
If you leave now, you'll still reach the
train.
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I was angry because he came late.
Although I love good food, I eat very
little.
He came (in order) to help me.
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5.2.4 Sentence types
many traditional (learner) grammars list
statement, question, command, exclamation
(Alexander, L. G. (1990) Longman English
Grammar Practice)
or statement, question, imperative
(Close, R. A. (1975) A Reference Grammar for
Students of English)
= mix of formal and notional categories, e.g.
statement, command, exclamation (notional),
imperative (formal), question (notional/formal)
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structuralist and most mixed grammatical
approaches, e.g. Quirk et al 1985, Huddleston
1988,
distinguish clearly between formal and
functional (notional) levels of sentences;
types according to formal criteria
1. Declarative
2. Interrogative (wh-questions,
yes/no-questions)
3. Imperative
4. Exclamative
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1. normal for S to precede V
Pauline gave Tom an iPod for his birthday.
2. two types:
2.a yes-no interrogative:
operator in front of S
…
2.b wh-interrogative:
wh-element positioned initially,
subject-operator inversion
…
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3. overt grammatical subject missing,
base form of V
…
4. initial phrase introduced by what/how,
S-V order
…
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these types close to their (discourse)
functions,
Statement, Question, Directive, Exclamation
(Greenbaum/Quirk 1990, 231)
but not identical
e.g. ?
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exclamatory questions
directives in question form
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• Simple sentence –
one finite clause
The sun is shining.
(S)
(V)
Most students have found her reasonably helpful.
(S)
(V)
(O)
(C)
You can put the dish on the table.
(S)
(V)
(O)
(A)
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• Complex sentence –
at least two clauses,
either co-ordinate or subordinate relationship
[The girl read a book] and [the boy prepared the
meal.]
coordinate clauses
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[Although I admire her reasoning], [I reject her
conclusions.]
subordinate clause
sometimes more complicated:
[He predicted] [that he would discover the tiny
particle] [when he conducted his next
experiment.]
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main/superordinate clause
He predicted
O
subordinate clause (superordinate to whenclause)
that he would discover the tiny particle
A
subordinate clause
when he conducted his next
experiment.
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5.2.5 Criticism of traditional grammar
1. Transfer of a Latin-based framework to
languages which do not use the grammatical
categories of Latin
in the same systematic way,
e.g. nouns: ... genitive, dative, accusative,
vocative; verb forms etc ...
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2. Mixing of criteria for describing categories,
e.g. in the definition of word classes
3.Dominance of written language,
disregard of spoken language
('some corrupted form of the written variety')
4. Prescriptive and normative tendencies
(vs. description)
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5. Use of different descriptive terms in
phonology, grammar, lexicon
 no unified explanations
6. Insensitive to other important categories,
such as word order
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ad 1.
(a) Who´s there? - It´s me.(I)
He is bigger than me.(I)
Latin only complement in nominative case
(b) Who(m) did you ask?
(c) No prepositions at the end of sentences
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"This is the kind of nonsense which up with I
will not put." (Churchill)
…
(usual form?)
What did you bring that book I didn´t want to
be read to out of up for?
…
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labelling regional differences as
ungrammatical
She gave him the book. (StE)
substitution of the book by a pronoun:
She gave it to him.
…
She gave him it.
…
She gave it him.
…
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