Transcript Lecture5_Evidence_Experiment

Providence University
College of Management
Giving Evidence and
Experimenting
Wu-Lin Chen ([email protected])
Department of Computer Science and
Information Management
Proof or Evidence
• Proof or evidence is usually the result of
observation or experimentation, combined
with reasoning.
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Using English To Give Evidence
• Due to some scientific hypotheses’
unprovable nature, evidence is frequently
introduced with words like indicates or
demonstrates rather than the stronger
word proves.
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Using English To Give Evidence
• EX: Smoking is related to many heart and circulatory
ailments.
– Evidence: It has been demonstrated that nicotine increases the rate
of the heart…
• EX: Smoking is the most significant factor in respiratory
diseases.
– Evidence 1: It can damage the tiny hairs (cilia) that line the
breathing passages…
– Evidence 2: Research also confirms that the tar in cigarette smoke
is carcinogenic…
• EX: There is also a correlation between smoking and birth
defects.
– Evidence: The evidence indicates that pregnant women who smoke
a pack of cigarettes a day have a greater likelihood of having a
miscarriage…
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Using English To Give Evidence
• Evidence is not always marked with a clue
word and often can only be identified by
the context of the paragraph.
• EX: Smokers often become physically and
psychologically dependent on their habit…
– Evidence 1: Smokers often…suffer withdrawal
symptoms if they attempt to stop.
– Evidence 2: Even the onset of a smokingrelated illness is not always sufficient to
enable heavy smokers to quit.
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Reasoning
• Two basic methods to move from evidence
to a conclusion
– Deductive reasoning
– Inductive reasoning
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Deductive Reasoning
• Deductive reasoning moves from a general premise or assumption
to a specific conclusion.
– All metals are good conductors of electricity.
– Zinc is a metal.
– Therefore, zinc is a good conductor of electricity.
• If deductive reasoning is properly stated and if the premises are true,
the conclusion will be true.
• Deductive reasoning can sometimes lead to false conclusions if the
premise is false.
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All students are lazy.
Everyone here is a student.
Therefore, everyone here is lazy.
All gases can flow.
All liquids can flow.
Therefore, all gases are liquids.
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Inductive Reasoning
• Inductive reasoning moves from a specific
observation to a general conclusion.
– If air is observed to expand or contract to fill any
container, the assumption might be made that all
gases behave this way.
• Inductive reasoning can sometimes lead to false
conclusions.
– If a particular mushroom is poisonous, all mushrooms
must be poisonous.
• If the examples are not enough, not
representative or nor typical, inductive reasoning
can also lead to false conclusions.
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Writing Skills
• Scientific writing requires evidence to support
your statements.
• The more evidence you have and the better is,
the stronger your statement or argument will be.
• Forms of evidence:
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facts
statistics
observations
test results
survey results
expert opinion (used carefully)
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Experimenting
• An experiment is a kind of process.
• A process is a series of acts or operations
designed to bring about a desired result.
– A common form of process in writing is the recipe.
• Analysis is the systematic division of any
complex whole into its component parts, or
pieces.
• Process analysis is the step-by-step explanation
of how something happened, how something is
made, or how to do something.
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Using English to Give Directions
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Analyze a process by breaking it down into
steps or procedures and arranging them in
chronological order (i.e. the order which things
happen).
Give directions by writing a list of steps rather
than a paragraph.
The imperative form of verb is used.
1. Arrange tiny pieces of paper on a table.
2. Rub a plastic comb with some woolen fabric.
3. Hold the comb over the pieces of paper and
observe what happens. (The paper should be
attracted to the comb.)
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Imperative Verbs
•
When and how to use imperative verbs:
1. give a command or direction;
2. appear at the beginning of a clause;
3. have a subject that is implied, not stated
(you); and
4. are formed from the present tense of the
verb.
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Writing Skills
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Think through the process in specific details, step by step before
writing.
Make sure your written directions are clear.
Ask yourself whether there are any steps the reader should be
warned about in advance.
The following guidelines for writing directions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
List all the steps in the process.
Begin each step with an imperative verb.
Arrange the steps in strict chronological order.
Keep the sentences fairly short. (Do not put more than one step
together.)
Include all necessary details, such as specific quantities,
measurements, and dates.
Check to see that you have not omitted anything or included any
unnecessary steps.
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