Transcript compounds - Nechodimnaprednasky.sk

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Morphology is the field within
linguistics that studies the internal
structure of words.
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a morpheme
•the smallest unit of grammatical analysis.
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

be identifiable from one word to
another
and

Contribute in some way to the
meaning of the whole word.
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MORPHEMES

derivational
read + -er
un- + tie
inflectional
work – work(-s)
work – work (-ed)
paradigm
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A word and its forms: DERIVATION
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Derivationally related words are
different words with a shared base.
We talk about so called word classes ,
primary grammatical categories, parts
of speech or lexical categories:
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Why do we group words into categories?
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The lexicon (vocabulary) of language - much
higher than a hundred thousand.
It is convenient not to study individual items but to
group certain items into classes sharing certain
features, and examine them together
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

conversion (or zero derivation)
word passing from one word
class to another (or several
others) without taking any affix
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A word and its forms:
INFLECTION
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

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(- s ), (- ed),(-er), are attached to words to
indicate their grammatical functions, for example
number, tense, degree, without involving a full
semantic change (i.e. a change in meaning).
i n f l e x i o n a l morphemes.
paradigm
Inflectionally related word forms are the forms of
the same word
A paradigm is the complete set of related wordforms associated with a given lexeme
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LEXEME ?
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PERFORM
This pianist performs in the local
hall every week.
Mary told us that this pianist
performed in the local hall every
week.
These pianists perform in the local
hall every week.
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
PERFORM = LEXEME=an
abstract kind of word of which
the word forms are all
inflectional variants
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

TELL is a lexeme of told (past
tense of tell )
PIANIST is a lexeme of PIANISTS
(plural of pianist)
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Inflection vs. word-formation
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
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inflectional rules - relate different
forms of the same lexeme
word-formation - relate two
different lexemes.
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
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word-formation:
derivation and compounding
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
COMPOUNDS
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
A compound is a word composed
of more than one free morpheme.
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
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COMPOUND VERBS:
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
COMPOUND NOUNS
HEADED AND HEADLESS COMPOUNDS
BLENDS AND ACRONYMS
COMPOUNDS CONTAINING BOUND
COMBINING FORMS
PHRASAL WORDS
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
COMPOUND VERBS
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VERB_VERB (VV)
stir-fry, freeze-dry
NOUN –VERB (NV)
hand-wash, air-condition , steam-clean
ADJECITVE-VERB (AV)
dry-clean, whitewash
PREPOSITION-VERB (PV)
underestimate, outrun, overcook
ADVERB-VERB (Ad-V)
downsize, upgrade
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
right-headed
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 Blacklist
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collective meaning
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Hyphenation
Unhyphenated,solid -compound
verbs with single-syllable modifiers
overhang
hyphenated - longer modifiers
Air-condition
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
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COMPOUND ADJECTIVES
are constructed in a very similar way to the
compound nouns
a modifier of a noun
It consists of two or more morphemes of which the
left-hand component limits or changes the
modification of the right-hand one
"the dark-green dress": dark limits the green that
modifies dress.
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

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NOUN-ADJECTIVE (NA)
sky-high, coal-black, oil-rich
ADJECTIVE-ADJECTIVE (AA)
grey-green, red-hot
PREPOSITION-ADJECTIVE (PA)
underfull, overactive
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
VA structure, corresponding to the VV verbs would
resemble hypothetical „sing-happy“ (happy enough to
sing),

„fail-safe“ (designed to return to a safe condition if it
fails or goes wrong).

They scarcely exist, even though it is easy enough to
find plausible meanings for them.


This reflects the relative reluctance of verbs to
participate in compounding generally in English.
All the compounds here are again right – headed.
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
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Solid compound adjectives
earsplitting, eyecatching, and downtown.
(AmE)
ear-splitting, eye-catching (BrE)
Numbers that are spelled out and have
the suffix -fold added: "fifteenfold",
"sixfold".
Points of the compass:
northwest, northwester, northwesterly,
northwestwards, but not North-West
Frontier.
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

Hyphenated compound
adjectives
A compound adjective is
hyphenated if the hyphen helps the
reader differentiate a compound
adjective from two adjacent
adjectives that each independently
modify the noun.
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

"acetic acid solution": a bitter
solution producing vinegar or acetic
acid (acetic + acid + solution)
"acetic-acid solution": a solution of
acetic acid
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The hyphen is unneeded when
capitalization or italicization makes
grouping clear:
old English scholar: an old person who is
English and a scholar, or an old scholar
who studies English
"Old English scholar": a scholar of Old
English.
"De facto proceedings" (not "de-facto")
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

no risk of ambiguities - may be
written without a hyphen:
Sunday morning walk.
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Hyphenated compound adjectives may
have been formed originally by an
adjective preceding a noun:
Round table" → "round-table discussion"
"Blue sky" → "blue-sky law"
"Red light" → "red-light district"
"Four wheels" → "four-wheel drive" (the
singular, not the plural, is used)
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

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Others may have originated with a
verb preceding an adjective or
adverb:
"Feel good" → "feel-good factor"
"Buy now, pay later" → "buy-now
pay-later purchase"
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
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others are created with an original
verb preceding a preposition.
"Stick on" → "stick-on label"
"Walk on" → "walk-on part"
"Stand by" → "stand-by fare"
"Roll on, roll off" → "roll-on roll-off
ferry"
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
The following compound adjectives
are always hyphenated when
they are not written as one word:
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
An adjective preceding a noun to
which -d or -ed has been added as
a past-participle construction, used
before a noun:



"loud-mouthed hooligan"
"middle-aged lady"
"rose-tinted glasses"
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
A noun, adjective, or adverb
preceding a present participle:



"an awe-inspiring personality"
"a long-lasting affair"
"a far-reaching decision
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
Numbers spelled out or as
numerics:





"seven-year itch"
"five-sided polygon"
"20th-century poem"
"30-piece band"
"tenth-storey window"
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 A numeric with the affix -fold has
a hyphen (15-fold), but when
spelled out takes a solid
construction (fifteenfold).
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
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Numbers, spelled out or numeric,
with added -odd: sixteen-odd,
70-odd.
Compound adjectives with high- or
low-: "high-level discussion",
"low-price markup".
Colours in compounds:


"a dark-blue sweater"
"a reddish-orange dress".
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
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Fractions as modifiers are
hyphenated: "five-eighths
inches", but not in "a thirty-three
thousandth part".
Fractions used as nouns have no
hyphens: "I ate only one third of
the pie."
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
Comparatives and superlatives
in compound adjectives also take
hyphens:
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"the highest-placed competitor"
"a shorter-term loan"
However, a construction with most
is not hyphenated:

"the most respected member".
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
The following compound
adjectives are not normally
hyphenated:
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
Where there is no risk of ambiguity:

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"a Sunday morning walk"
Left-hand components of a compound
adjective that end in -ly that modify
right-hand components that are past
participles (ending in -ed):



"a hotly disputed subject"
"a greatly improved scheme"
"a distantly related celebrity"
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
Compound adjectives that include
comparatives and superlatives with
more, most, less or least:




"a more recent development"
"the most respected member"
"a less opportune moment"
"the least expected event"
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
Ordinarily hyphenated compounds
with intensive adverbs in front of
adjectives:


"very much admired classicist"
"really well accepted proposal"
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
COMPOUND NOUNS
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Verb- noun (VN): swearword,
drophammer, playtime
Noun-noun (NN): hairnet,
mosquito net, butterfly net, hair
restorer
Adjective-noun (AN): blackboard,
greenstone, faintheart
Preposition – noun (PN): ingroup, outpost, overcoat
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
Most of these are also rightheaded.
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

If we try to think of more examples for
the four types, we will probably find the
task easiest for the NN type.
In fact, almost any pair of nouns can be
juxtaposed in English so as to form a
compound or a phrase – provided that
there is something that this compound or
phrase could plausibly mean.
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
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Concatenating words without case
markers
compounds - arbitrarily long.
Short compounds - in three
different ways
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
solid or closed : housewife, lawsuit,
wallpaper, etc.
 hyphenated form:
 compounds that contain affixes
house-build(er),single-mind(ed)(ness),
 adjective-adjective compounds
blue-green
 verb-verb compounds,
freeze-dry
 compounds that contain articles,
mother-of-pearl
salt-and-pepper
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open or spaced form consisting of
newer combinations of usually
longer words, such as distance
learning, player piano, lawn
tennis, etc.
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container ship/containership/containership
and
particle board/particleboard/particleboard.
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two kinds of NN compound.
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hairnet
mosquito net
butterfly net
hair restorer
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
restorer in hair restorer is
derived from a verb (restore).
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Verbs, unlike most nouns and
adjectives, impose expectations
and requirements on the noun
phrases that accompany them in
the sentence.
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These expected or required nominal
concomitants to a verb are called its
arguments.
If a NN compound is derived from a
verb, the most natural way to interpret
the whole compound is quite precise, the
first element expresses the object
argument of the verb (that is , the person
or thing that undergoes the action).
For example, an X-restorer, whatever X is,
something or someone that restores X.
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
Sign-writer, slum clearance,
crime prevention, wishfulfilment.
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
crime prevention
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
NN compound like hairnet or
mosquito net, in which the righthand noun is not derived from a
verb and whose interpretation is not
precisely predictable on pure
linguistic basis - a primary or root
compound.
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

NN compound like hair restorer or
slum clearance, in which the first
element is interpreted as the object
of the verb contained within the
second - a secondary or verbal
compound (synthetic
compound)
Secondary compounds are certainly
right-headed
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
HEADED AND HEADLESS
COMPOUNDS:
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Adjective-noun (AN): blackboard,
greenstone, faintheart
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faintheart
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faintheart - headless -its status
as a noun is not determined by
either of its components.
Headless AN compounds
loudmouth, redshank (a kind of a
bird that has red legs)
headless NN compounds
stickleback( a kind of fish with
spines on its back), sabretooth.
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A few VN-compound nouns
resemble secondary compounds in
that the noun at the right is
interpreted as the object of the
verb.
Pickpocket, killjoy
Headless -a pickpocket is not a
kind of pocket,
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Some nouns consist of a verb and a preposition
or adverb:
Take-off, sell-out, wrap-up, sit-in
As for headless adjectives, there are quite a
number consisting of a preposition and a noun.
Overland, in-house, with profits, offshore,
downmarket, upscale, underweight, over-budget
The adjectival status of these compounds can
often be confirmed by their appropriateness in
comparative contexts and with the modifier very:
They live in a very downmarket neighbourhood.
This year’s expenditure is even more over-budget
than last year’s .
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exocentric
endocentric.
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Blends and acronyms
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a kind of compound where at least
one component is reproduced only
partially - blends.
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smog
talkathon
cheeseburger
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acronyms
NATO (for North Atlantic Treaty
Organization), ANZAC (for
Australian and New Zealand Army
Corps), RAM (random access
memory), SCSI (pronounced
scuzzy, small computer system
interface), AIDS (aquired immune
deficiency syndrome) .
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
If the conventional way of reading
the string is by pronouncing the
name of each letter in turn, as with
USA and RP (received
pronunciation), then it is not an
acronym but an abbreviation.
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Compounds containing bound
combining forms.
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compounds that are made up of bound roots,
known as combining forms.
Anthropology, sociology, cardiogram,
electrocardiogram, retrograde, retrospect,
plantigrade.
For most of these the meaning of the whole is
clearly determinable from that of the parts.
For example: anthrop (o) – human plus –(o) logy,
science or study, yields a word that means
science or study of human beings and planti(sole) (of foot) and –grade (walking) yields a
word meaning walkin on the soles of the feet.
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Phrasal words
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
jack-in-the-box.
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Structurally this has the appearance of a noun
phrase in which the head noun, jack, is modified
by a prepositional phrase, in the box , exactly
parallel to the phrases :
People in the street or (a) book on the shelf.
They form their plurals by suffixing –s not to the
head noun (as in books on the shelf) but to the
whole expression : book on the shelves, jack-inthe boxes,
They jumped up and down like jack-in-the boxes.
Though structurally a phrase, then, it behaves as
a word.
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Let´s contrast it with another item which
is at least as idiosyncratic in meaning and
which has a superficially similar structure:
brother – in – law.
A crucial difference is that brother-in-law
forms its plural by affixing – s not to the
whole expression but to the head noun:
Brothers –in –law
Despite its hypens, therefore, brotherin-law is not a word at all but a phrase.
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
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Another examples of phrasal words:
Dyed-in-the –wool Republican
/s
Couldn´t-care-less attitude
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