Transcript Solving the Problem

Solving the Problem
Purpose, Objectives,
Questions, Hypotheses
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Purpose and Objectives

The purpose of the study includes the aims or
goals the investigator hopes to achieve with
the research. It gives an idea of what the
researcher hopes to do, in general, to solve
the problem. The objectives tell you what
approach the researcher has decided to take
to solve the problem. I your text, these
statements are merged. For the proposal you
are going to write, both will be required.
Purpose of Objectives
To set out the goals the researcher
intends to achieve.
 To justify why those goals were selected
instead of others, especially if others
are obvious.

The Problem – why do you need to do something
The Purpose – what, in general, do you need to do
The Objectives – what approach will you take to do it
Implement
Action
Train … or
Reorganize … or
Initiate … or
Re-engineer …or
Develop a
Product
Assess/describe
Invent
Package
Test
Distribute
Evaluate a
Program
Objectives
Decide criteria
for success
Evaluate input,
process
(formative) or
outcome
(summative)
Research
Phenomena
Depict
(qualitatively or
quantitatively)
Relate (compare
or contrast)
Conceptualize
Test a conceptualization or
theory
Objectives

In developing objectives, the first step is
to determine what approach is to be
taken. There are four kinds of
approaches:
– To implement some action
– To develop something by invention
– To evaluate something
– To conduct research (You will take this
approach)
Action Research
The purpose is to respond to some
need that you identify as not having
been met.
 You do this by implementing some
action through training, administrative
reorganization, program initiation, etc.

Development Research

The purpose of development research is to
determine the status quo, to figure out a way
of altering that status by inventing a solution,
to assemble and package the solution so that
it will be usable by others in the situation for
which it was designed, then to test or
evaluate the package to see if it is a desirable
alternative to the status quo, then to distribute
it.
Evaluation Research

The purpose of evaluation research is to
document the effect of what you are doing in
your system for the purpose of making
decisions. You must identify objectives for
the research. You must select criteria to be
used to determine success. You must
consider input, process and output in
measuring the level of success, and you must
make recommendations for actions based on
the data you obtained.
Traditional Research

The purpose of traditional research is first to
describe, in detail, what you see in terms of
variables (concepts). Then it is possible to
relate the concepts, either by comparing or
contrasting them or by correlating them.
Once relationships are determined, they can
be accounted for by developing a conceptual
framework through which the relationships
can be predicted. Then, these predictions
can be tested.
Decide on the Type of Approach

For this class, you will be conducting
traditional research, unless you really think
your problem warrants one of the other three
approaches. The other approaches are just
as valuable to nursing, but for me to answer
questions about all four approaches during
class would make the class more confusing.
Those who elect to follow one of the other
approaches will have to come to me
individually so I can answer specific
questions.
Selecting Objectives
In an objective, there are two aspects
 The Action Aspect – the verb – this has
very little variation - there are only a few
verbs that can be used
 The Content Aspect – this will vary
depending upon the subject
(substantive material) of your research
and the framework you are using

Objectives continued

If you were using development research you
would have to:
– Describe the situation needing a solution
– Invent a solution
– Fabricate a package (put it into a form that could
be used by others)
– Test the package
– Disperse or disseminate the package

You could use words that are synonyms for
the underlined verbs, but you would still have
to carry out the same five actions
Objectives continued

You are going to conduct traditional research,
and with that you are limited to one to four
verbs:
–
–
–
–

To depict concepts
To relate concepts
To conceptualize a framework or theory
To test a framework or theory you have put forth
For research, you do not have to do all four
Objectives cont.

At this stage, you will be doing one of
the first two actions:
– To depict
• To depict qualitatively - to describe, to identify,
to define, to distinguish, to determine
• To depict quantitatively – to appraise, to rate, to
count, to rank, to measure, to standardize, to
norm, to extrapolate
Objectives cont.
– To relate:
– To relate qualitatively – to compare, to liken, to
contrast, to collate, to match
– To relate quantitatively – to correlate, to connect, to
associate, to regress
Objectives cont.

You must decide on what level of research
you will be working – are you only going to
describe or are you also going to relate.
 Set up a grid with the action aspect (verb) on
one side and the content aspects
(substantive area) on the other. This will help
you determine possible objectives.
 Select the objective you wish to accomplish –
you won’t be able to accomplish them all
Objectives – Grid example

Action Aspect
Content Aspect
To determine
The effect of intraoperative teaching of
nurses on their ability to
provide comfort measures
to post-operative
orthopedic patients
Objectives for Determining Stress in Nursing
Students vs. Other Students

Action
Content
– To determine
level of stress in nursing students (NS)
–
–
–
–
To determine
To determine
To determine
To determine
level of stress in education students
level of stress in PT students
level of stress in HHP students
level of stress in Pre-med students
–
–
–
–
To compare
To compare
To compare
To compare
level of stress in NS with Educ. students
level of stress in NS with PT student
level of stress in NS with HHP students
level of stress in NS with Pre-M students
Questions and Hypotheses

These break down the still broad
objectives into components and
elements that can be worked on
operationally. They must flow from the
conceptual framework. They will guide
the design or procedures. They must be
stated prior to collecting data.
Questions

These are used in exploratory and
preliminary studies. They are ways of
learning more about some phenomenon
– ways of gathering enough data to
develop hypotheses. They must be
clearly stated so that they can be as
rigorously answered as an hypothesis
would be.
Hypotheses

A hypothesis is a statement of your
expected outcome based on your
rationale. It is a prediction, from
uncertain evidence, about the
relationship between two or more
variables. It is an educated guess
Purposes of Hypotheses

To narrow the field of the research and give
more direction to the research
 To identify, in measurable terms, what the
researcher believes to be the cause and
effect of a given situation
 To state a relationship specifically so that the
relationship can be tested – found to be
probable or not probable
(Can’t test good, bad, moral or ethical situation)
Variables

Variables are measurable or potentially
measurable components which may
fluctuate in quantity or quality. A
variable is anything that can change or
vary – a symbol to which numbers or
values are assigned.
Variables cont.

Independent variable (IV)– stands alone,
does not rely on any other variable. It is
usually stated first.
 Dependent variable (DV)– the effect of the
action of the independent variable. It cannot
exist by itself. In research, the researcher
manipulates the IV to determine if it is the
cause. Control of the IV should control the
DV.
Variables cont.
Extraneous variables – those that are
uncontrolled or lie outside of the interest of
the researcher
 Controlled variables – those that are held
constant so that the results are unaffected by
them
 Intervening variables – those that come
between the IV and the DV. They can’t be
measured but the researcher can attempt to
reduce intensity – stress, anxiety

Variables cont.
Confounding variables – those that
influence the DV by interfering –
patient’s attitude toward recovery
(wants insurance or compensation)
 Antecedent variables – those that come
before the IV and bear a relationship to
it and the DV – such as poor nutrition

Variables cont.

Organismic variables – those that cannot
ethically be changed by the researcher such
as age, sex, marital status
• Discrete variables – exist only in units – eye color, race
• Dichotomous variables – have only two categories –
male/female
• Continuous variables – those for which a fractional value
exists and has meaning – age, height, weight
Causation

At first you may just recognize that a
cause and effect occur together, then
you have to determine the relationship
– Essential condition – it is necessary to
cause the effect
– Contributary condition – it may contribute
to causing the effect by there may also be
other factors
Causation
– Contingent condition – the possibility exists
that it causes the effect
– Alternative condition – it may or may not
cause the effect, depending upon the
circumstances.

Researchers can’t investigate all
possibilities. They must choose the
most likely with the constraints of time
Wording an Hypothesis
It must be stated in operational terms – the
terms relating to the IV and the DV must be
defined so that everyone interprets them the
same way
 It must be stated in precise, scientific
language
 It must be conceptually clear – it must be
measurable and observers must agree on the
measurement
 It should be related to a theory so that the
finding will be relevant

Types of Hypotheses
Simple hypotheses – one IV & one DV
 Complex hypotheses – more than one IV or
DV or both
 Null or statistical hypothesis – states there is
no relationship between IV and DV – the DV
was changed by chance
 Research/scientific hypothesis – states there
is a relationship, usually states the direction

– Non-directional Hypotheses – related but ? how
– Directional hypotheses – related either + or -
Conceptual vs. Operational
Definitions of Variables

A conceptual definition conveys the general
meaning of the concept such as might be
found in a dictionary. It can reflect the
framework used in the study.
 An operational definition gives you the
procedures or operations required to
measure the concept. It supplies the
information needed to collect data
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