Transcript word classes - Nechodimnaprednasky.sk

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Morphology is the field within
linguistics that studies the internal
structure of words.
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a morpheme
•the smallest unit of grammatical analysis.
•Morphemes
bricks: different sizes and shapes = classes of morphemes
walls of different types = sentences, paragraphs and texts.
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

be identifiable from one word to
another
and

Contribute in some way to the
meaning of the whole word.
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bound morpheme IN one complex word
leg- in legible.
illegible - the negative counterpart of
legible.
cran-, huckle-, gorm-, - in cranberry,
huckleberry, gormless
Cranberry and huckleberry - compounds
free morpheme berry
cran- huckle-
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A name commonly given to such bound morphemes is
cranberry morpheme.
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Analytical process:
Synthetical process:
Doctor
To a doctor
doktor
k doktorovi
English
Slovak
more and shorter words
fewer and longer words
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A synthetical process combines morphemes into
larger words.
Work, Works, worked
stop, stops, stopped
Read, readable, unreadable
analyze, analyzable
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

– ed
un-
the past tense
negation
Monofunctional morphemes
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-s
the singular number + the third
person of the English verb
polyfunctional morpheme
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•A synthetical process in which all morphemes are
monofunctional
is called
agglutination
•A synthetical process in which the morphemes are
polyfunctional
(foot- feet )
is called
inflection
•A process in which morphemes are not
combined into larger words but stand as words
by themselves is an analytical process and is
called
isolation.
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Models of morphology
•Morpheme-based morphology, which makes use of
an Item-and-Arrangement approach.
•Lexeme-based morphology, which normally makes
use of an Item-and-Process approach.
•Word-based morphology, which normally makes use
of a Word-and-Paradigm approach.
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Morpheme-based morphology
•word-forms are analyzed as arrangements of morphemes.
•A morpheme is defined as the minimal meaningful unit of a
language.
•In a word like independently, we say that the morphemes are in, depend, -ent, and ly; depend is the root and the other morphemes
are, in this case, derivational affixes.
• In a word like dogs, we say that dog is the root, and that -s is an
inflectional morpheme.
•This way of analyzing word-forms as if they were made of
morphemes put after each other like beads on a string, is called
Item-and-Arrangement.
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Lexeme-based morphology
•Item-and-Process approach.
•Instead of analyzing a word-form as a set of morphemes
arranged in sequence, a word-form is said to be the result of
applying rules that alter a word-form or stem in order to
produce a new one.
•An inflectional rule takes a stem, changes it as is required
by the rule, and outputs a word-form
• a derivational rule takes a stem, changes it as per its own
requirements, and outputs a derived stem
• a compounding rule takes word-forms, and similarly
outputs a compound stem.
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Word-based morphology



Word-and-paradigm approach.
This theory takes paradigms as a central notion. Instead
of stating rules to combine morphemes into word-forms,
or to generate word-forms from stems, word-based
morphology states generalizations that hold between the
forms of inflectional paradigms.
Words can be categorized based on the pattern they fit
into. This applies both to existing words and to new ones.
Application of a pattern different than the one that has
been used historically can give rise to a new word, such as
older replacing elder (where older follows the normal
pattern of adjectival superlatives) and cows replacing kine
(where cows fits the regular pattern of plural formation).
While a Word-and-Paradigm approach can explain this
easily, other approaches have difficulty with phenomena
such as this.
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A word and its forms: DERIVATION
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MORPHEMES

derivational
read + -er
un- + tie
inflectional
work – work(-s)
work – work (-ed)
paradigm
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Derivationally related words are different words
with a shared base.
We talk about so called word classes , primary
grammatical categories, parts of speech or lexical
categories:
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Why do we group words into categories?
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The lexicon (vocabulary) of language - much
higher than a hundred thousand.
It is convenient not to study individual items but to
group certain items into classes sharing certain
features, and examine them together
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• major classes
•Subclasses
 Accordingly, we speak of items which are central to
the class on one hand, and of those which are on
the periphery
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Adverbs:
easily, there, yes
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

She speaks naturally.
She speaks easily.
Naturally I like it.
Yes, I like it
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
In setting up word classes, several
criteria, not only one, are usually
applied.
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
For our purposes, in studying
grammar, meaning will not be a
primary but an auxiliary criterion.
The same holds for phonological
make-up of words.
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
The main grammatical criteria are
paradigmatic and syntagmatic.
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

Words of the same word class often have
similar paradigms (i.e. sets of forms
which the word may assume) and they
are paradigmatically related to each other
if they can replace each other in certain
contexts. Thus some words which can be
inflected for number will belong the same
class – we shall call them nouns. These
words can be used, for example in the
context:
The …………………………….disappeared.
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
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words money, chair, trousers,
enthusiasm
read, very, so, true , and
Very, so = the same class because
both of them can be used in the
frame.
They were…………………….pretty.
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
By examining with which items certain
words can combine, we arrive at their
syntagmatic properties. Nouns, for
example, can be preceded by adjectives
and determiners, and with or without
them by prepositions; words like very
and so are typically used before some
adjectives and adverbs etc. Items which
can be used in the same frame are said to
be paradigmatically related, those that
combine with each other are
syntagmatically related
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


If by way of example we want to establish
a word class, we may group together
words which can take the morphemes –
es, - ed, - ing.
The class obtained will be that of verbs.
We shall see, however, that a number of
items which are also classified as verbs do
not take exactly these three morphemes
(e.g. auxiliary and modal auxiliary
verbs) In applying our criterion we have
obtained a subclass of a larger class of
verbs, that of regular verbs.
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


English word on its own is rarely overtly marked
as belonging to one word class or another.
Its class membership only becomes evident when
it is used together with other words, i.e. in
context.
The main criterion is not the form but the
function. The same item can, in fact, be used in
several functions and its classification is only
possible for its particular use. The word table for
example can be a noun, an adjective or a verb:
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
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
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The word table for example can be
a noun, an adjective or a verb:
We sat down at the same table.
He bought a table lamp.
It was his turn to table a proposal.
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


Slovak
stôl, stolný and nastoliť
d e r i v a t i o n.
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
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conversion (or zero derivation)
word passing from one word
class to another (or several
others) without taking any affix
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
Conversion exists not only between
such major word classes as nouns
and verbs or verbs and
adjectives etc. but also between
subclasses such as common and
proper nouns, count and noncount nouns etc
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
Except for traditional classification
of words into NOUNS, VERBS,
PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES,
ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS,
CONJUNCTIONS, ARTICLES and
INTERJECTIONS,
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

words can be classified on account of
various criteria into for example, lexical
and grammatical words, i.e. words
whose main use is to denote substances,
qualities, processes etc. and those used
primarily to indicate various relations
among these entities.
Grammatical words are more important
in analytical than in synthetical
languages where most of the relations
are indicated by affixes.
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

Words can also be classified according to
whether they can take inflexions or not.
Most of the English nouns and verbs
belong to the inflected words,
adjectives, adverbs and pronouns are
inflected or uninflected, prepositions,
conjunctions are uninflected words.
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
An important division is that into
words belonging to open classes
and words which are members of
closed system or closed classes.
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
An open class can be extended
by new items if the need arises
to name new items or new
aspects of extra-linguistic
reality, e.g. when a new thing is
discovered or invented, a name
is given to it.
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
On the other hand , we can hardly notice
a new pronoun, or preposition in our
every-day language experience. Mainly
grammatical words belong to closed
systems, in which the individual items
are mutually exclusive (i.e. two items of
the same class can not be used in the
same place together) and mutually
defining (ie the meaning or function of an
item is that which is not contained in the
other item or items of the same class)
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
For example definite and
indefinite article can not be used
with the same noun, and once one
of them is used we know that it
denotes exactly the opposite of
what the other one would denote.
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
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Adverbs derived from adjectives:
– lyOFTEN, SElDOM, NEVER, SOON
morphologically complex without adding –
ly (NOWHERE, ANYWHERE, TODAY,
YESTERDAY)
formed by conversion FAST (the car was
driven fast) and HARD (They worked
hard), derived from adjectives FAST as in
fast car, and HARD as in hard work.
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
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Nouns derived from nouns
Small X : - let, - ette, -ie (droplet,
booklet, cigarette, doggie)
Female X: - ess, -ine (waitress, heroine)
Inhabitant X – er, -(i)an (Londoner,
Texan, Glaswegian)
State of beingX: - ship, hood (kingship,
ladyship, motherhood, priesthood)
Devotee of or expert on X: - ist, - ian
(Marxist, historian)
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Nouns derived from members of
other word classes
nouns from adjectives:
-ity (purity, equality, ferocity, sensitivity)
-ness (goodness, tallness, sensitiveness)
-ism (radicalism, conservatism)
 Even more numerous are suffixes for deriving
nouns from verbs
Here are just a few:
-ance, -ence (performance ignorance, reference)
-ment, (announcement, development)
-ing (painiting, ignoring)
-((a)t)ion (commission, organisation, confusion
-al (refusal, arrival, referral)
-er (painter singer)

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Nouns derived from members of
other word classes


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Some non-affixal ways of deriving
abstract nouns (other than conversion)
are:
change in the position of the stress
(NOUNS permit, transfer alongside VERBS
permít, transfér)
Change in the final consonant NOUNS
belief proof, defence alongside VERBS to
believe, to prove, defend
Change in vowel NOUNS song, seat
alongside verbs sing, sit.
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Adjectives derived from adjectives
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In this category prefixes predominate
The only suffix is – ish, meaning
somewhat X: greenish, smallish
Prefixes – UN –extremely widespread for
example unhappy, unsure, unreliable
Because it is so common, most dictionaries
do not attempt to list all un- adjectives.
This does not mean, however, that un- can
be prefixed to all adjectives quite freely.
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Adjectives derived from adjectives
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Another negative prefix is IN- with
allomorphs indicated by the variant spellings
IL-, IR - , IM- as in intangible, illegal,
irresponsible. Impossible
It is more restricted than UN, largely for
historical reasons .
Eatable/uneatable
Readable/unreadable
Lawful/unlawful
legal/illegal
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legible/illegible
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Adjectives derived from members of
other word classes
Suffixes – ed, -ing, -en can also be adjectives:
A not very interesting book
The party-goers sounded very drunk
The car seemed more damaged than the lamp-post.
 Further suffixes that commonly form adjectives from
verbs are:
able (readable, breakable)
ent, -ant (repellent, conversant)
ive (repulsive, explosive)
 Suffixes that form adjectives from nouns are more
numerous:
ful (pocketful, joyful, helpful)
less (meaningless, helpless)
al (original, normal, personal)
ish (boyish, childish)

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Verbs derived from verbs
All affixes that will be mentioned here are
prefixes:
 Most prominent are re- an the negative
reversive prefixes un- de- and disPaint, enter
repaint, re-enter
Tie, tangle
untie, untangle
Compose, sensitive
decompose,desensitive

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Verbs derived from members of
other word classes

Affixes for deriving verbs from nouns are:
De- debug, deforest,
-ise (organise, terrorise)
-(i)fy, (beautify, petrify)

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There are also some common verbs that are derived
by replacing the final voiceless consonant of a noun
with a voiced one, perhaps with some vowel
change.
NOUNS
VERBS
Bath
Breath
House (s)
Wreath
bathe
breathe
House (z)
Wreathe

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