Transcript 4.FINDINGS & DISCUSSION

CHAPTER 4
FINDINGS & DISCUSSION
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What Do You Do
With
The Data Collected?
Present It
Raw
Data
Process
It
Analyze It
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1.PROCESSING
•
•
•
•
Organise manually or using computer
Record using ‘keyword’
Categorise to see the ‘picture’
Coding helps processing the data
statistically (using SPSS)
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2.PRESENTING
• Turn data into comprehensible
‘pictures’ through
1. Table
2. Figures
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80
74.6
64.9
70
Percentage
60
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35.1
40
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Easy
Difficult
25.4
20
10
0
Engineering
Non-Engineering
Major
Figure 4.1 Perceptions towards Reading in English
Bar charts/graphs are good when
you want to compare discrete items.
The bars can be vertical or horizontal.
Making them different colours can help
the reader to differentiate each result.
Figure 4.2 Supply and Demand for Kelawar Cars
(1998 – 2002)
Line graphs are especially effective at
showing trends (how data changes
over time) and relationships (how two
variables interact).
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Table 4.1 Comparisons of Drinks Sold in 2007
18.6
25.4
Comic
Academic Book
16.9
Education Book
Education Magazine
Entertainment Magazine
6.8
27.1
1.7
Novel
Newspaper
20.3
Figure 4.3 Most Preferred Reading Materials by
Engineering Students in Percentage
Tables are useful when you need to
present a quantity of numerical data in
an accessible format
Pie charts show the proportion of the
whole that is taken by various parts.
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Figure 4.4 Schematic Diagram of Human Heart
Figure 4.5 The Inside of a Racing Car
Drawings and diagrams can be used Photographs can be useful as
illustrations that help to explain what
to reinforce or supplement
textual information, or where something is being discussed in the text.
is more clearly shown in diagrammatic
form.
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Layout and Labelling
• All graphs, charts, drawings, diagrams and
photographs should be numbered consecutively as
Figures according to where they come in the text
(e.g. Figure 1, Figure 2, Figure 3 etc).
• All tables should be numbered using a separate
sequence (e.g. Table 1, Table 2 etc).
• If your chapters are numbered, you may number
figures and tables in separate sequences that refer to
the chapter number (e.g. in chapter 3 you would
have, Figure 3.1, Figure 3.2 etc).
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…continuation
• Title or Caption
– Should be short and concise
– Describe the subject and data illustrated
– First letter of the words in the title should
be capitalized except for prepositions
– Title for Tables come at the top while
titles for Figures at the bottom
• Labels of parts in the illustration
– Should be clear and consist of few words
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Look at the following images and identify how they could be
improved to be more suitable for an academic report:
The bar chart has no label on the Y
axis and a very vague label on the X
axis. The colour of the "belief" bars
and the background makes the graph
difficult to read. There is no overall title
for the graph.
Figure 2
Mean Response Times (bars represent standard
errors) for belief and reality probes in Conditions 1, 2, and 3).
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The table is hard to understand as
there are no grid lines and the sizes
of the columns are all different. There
are no labels for the "Total" columns
and no overall title explaining the
table.
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3.ANALYSING
• Analyse manually or using computer
• Involves the interpretation of
frequencies based on data presentation
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3 STAGES (QUALITATIVE DATA)
1. PROCESSING
2. PRESENTING
3. ANALYSING
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1.PROCESSING
•
•
•
•
Organise by using transcriptions
Categorise by listing the responses
Coding by using flexible codes
Analogy of pieces of a puzzle
– Identifying
– Sorting
– Reconstructing
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2.PRESENTING
• Usually presented in original forms
• Can also be presented using tables
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3.ANALYSING
• Involves finding commonalities,
regularities or emerging patterns
among the responses
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HOW TO WRITE
IN THE REPORT?
Type A
Findings
• Research Question 1
• Research Question 2
• Research Question 3
Discussion
• Research Question 1
• Research Question 2
• Research Question 3
Type B
• Research Question 1:
Findings & Discussion
• Research Question 2:
Findings & Discussion
• Research Question 3:
Findings & Discussion
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HOW?
•
•
•
•
Have an introduction
Have a general statement
Describe figures/tables effectively
Discuss by analyzing them:
– Give reasons
– Support with literature review available
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ANALYSIS
Figure 1: Supply and Demand for Kelawar Cars
(1998 – 2002)
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• General statement:
– Supply ≠ Demand
• Description:
1. Supply
– 5000 units in 2008; higher than
demand
– Declined dramatically to 3000
units
– 1999-2000 remained constant
@ 3000 units
– From 2000 onwards increased
rapidly to 4800 units.
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2. Demand
– 3500 units in 1998
– Increased rapidly + reached a
peak of 6000 units in 2000
– From 2000 onwards, demand
declined sharply to 2000 units
– Year 2001-2002, it remained
constant @ 2000 units
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• Analysis:
– Demand initially increased,
then decreased before
remaining constant.
– Supply did not keep up with
demand.
– WHY?
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• Possible causes why
increase in demand:
– New model, good
marketing + pricing
strategy
• Possible causes why
decrease in demand:
– Long waiting period,
competition from other
similar category cars, poor
service facilities.
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• Possible causes why
supply cannot keep up
with demand:
– Poor forecasting ability
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Introduction & General Statement
Figure 1 shows the relationship
between the supply and demand for
Kelawar cars between 1998 and 2002.
In general it can be seen that there
was a mismatch between demand and
supply.
The demand for Kelawar increased
rapidly from 3500 units in 1998,
reaching a peak of 6000 units in the
year 2000. From this point onwards,
demand declined sharply to only 2000
units. Between the year 2001 and 2002
demand remained constant at 2000
units. In contrast, between the year
1998 and 1999 the supply of Kelawar
dropped steadily from 5000 units to
3000 units.
Figure 1: Supply and Demand for
Kelawar Cars (1998 – 2002)
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In contrast, between the year 1998
and 1999 the supply of Kelawar
dropped steadily from 5000 units to
3000 units. From 1999 to 2000, supply
appeared to level off and then
remained constant at 3000 units.
However, from the year 2000, it
started to increase gradually to 4800
units.
Figure 1: Supply and Demand for
Kelawar Cars (1998 – 2002)
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Discussion
The initial increase in demand could
be due to the fact that Kelawar was
then newly introduced (Perodua,
1998). As we know, many people
intending to buy cars would normally
go for new car models. In addition,
the good demand could also be the
result of good marketing and pricing
strategies. This claim is supported by
a statement made by Chairman of
Perodua, Abd Raof (2000) who said
that any successful business
encounter should be accompanied
Figure 1: Supply and Demand for
with high-quality advertising and
Kelawar Cars (1998 – 2002)
pricing approach.
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Discussion
However, starting from the year
2000, demand for Kelawar started to
decrease. This fall in demand could
perhaps be due to the availability of
other similar small cars such as
Kancil, Kelisa and Kenari (Perodua,
2001). Furthermore, according to
Malaysian Automotive Association or
also known as MAA (2002), the
inability of the administrators to
forecast future demands could result
in a higher waiting time for buyers,
making them lose interest. MAA
(2002) also stated that poor service Figure 1: Supply and Demand for
facilities could also cause this to
Kelawar Cars (1998 – 2002)
happen.
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Language Convention
- introduction •
•
•
•
•
•
•
shows
illustrate
demonstrate
display
depict
describe
tabulate
• Figure 4.1 [shows]
• As shown in Figure 4.1, [main clause]
– As shown in Figure 4.1, the relative pay of
construction workers has been falling for two
decades, …
• [main clause/NP] … is illustrated in Figure 4.1
– The average boarding pattern per bus is
shown/illustrated in Figure 4.1.
• [main clause]… (see Figure 4.1)
– A need analysis on office equipment shows a
tremendous requirement for new printers (see Figure
4.1).
• [NP], observed in Figure 4.1, illustrates [clause]
– The number of students in the queue, observed in
Figure 4.1, illustrates how congestion is at its worst
during the peak period.
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Describing Figures & Tables
Describe change effectively – use verbs
•Plummet
•Peak •Rocket
•Level out •Trough
•Decrease
•Rise
•Increase •Soar
•Jump
•Fluctuate
•Drop
•Decline
•Level off
•Plateau
•Stagnant
•Fall
1 Which verbs mean go up?
2 Of these, which 3 mean go up suddenly/a lot?
3 Which verbs mean go down?
4 Which verb means reach its highest level?
5 Which verb means stay the same?
6 Which verb means go up and down?
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Changes can also be described in more detail by
modifying a verb with an adverb
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… or by using adjective
•
The number of fatal cases increased
dramatically
– (subject + verb + adverb)
• There was a dramatic increase in the
number of fatal cases
– (There was /were + adjective + noun + in
+ something)
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Describing Graphs: Vocabulary
•
UP - Verbs go up, take off, shoot up, soar, jump, increase, rise, grow, rocket,
improve, climb, escalate (Learn the past tenses!)
•
UP - Nouns an increase, a rise, a growth, an improvement, an upturn, a surge, an
upsurge, an upward trend
•
DOWN - Verbs go/come down, fall, fall off, drop, slump, plunge, slide, dip, decline,
decrease, plummet, slip, shrink
•
DOWN - Nouns a fall, a decrease, a decline, a drop, a downturn, a downturn trend
•
NO CHANGE - Verbs remain stable, level off, stay at the same level, flatten off,
remain constant, stagnate, stabilize, hold steady
•
AT THE TOP - Verbs reach a peak, peak, top out
•
AT THE BOTTOM - Verbs reach a low point, bottom out
•
RECOVER pick up, bounce back, rally
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Prepositions
– Between 1995 and 2000
– From 1995 to 2000
– Rose by (differences between initial
number & subsequent number)
– Rose to
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Vocabulary: Numbers
• Look at the following table which shows a
number in different years (1990-1995) :
1990
1995
1200
1800
• You could describe the above table
using numbers, fractions or percentages:
• The number went up by 600, from 1200 to
1800. (Number)
• The number went up by half, from 1200 to
1800. (Fraction)
• The number went up by 50%, from 1200 to
1800. (Percentage)
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• Use "trebled," "-fold," and "times:"
1992
1994
1996
1998
500
1000
3000
12 000
• The number doubled between 1992 and 1994.
• The number trebled between 1994 and 1996.
• The number quadrupled from 1996 to 1998
• There was a twofold increase between 1992 and 1994.
• The number went up sixfold between 1992 and 1996.
• The figure in 1996 was three times the 1994 figure.
• The figure in 1998 was four times the 1996 figure.
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• Use Fraction
1992
1994
1996
1998
1000
800
400
100
• Between 1992 and 1994, the figure fell by onefifth.
• Between 1994 and 1996, the number dropped
by a half.
• The figure in 1998 was one-tenth the 1992 total.
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Pie Chart
The chart shows the grades
obtained by students in a
class. Overall more than 90
percent of the students
passed.
More than half of the
students obtained a very
good grade, with 21 percent
of the students was awarded
a distinction and 33 percent
obtained a merit grade.
Thirty-six percent of the
students passed the test,
while only eight failed.
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Pie Chart: The American Food Budget
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Pie Chart: The American Food Budget
The graph shows American spending on food for the home in 2002. Overall,
the biggest areas of expenditure was on protein.
The biggest percentage of spending was on meats, fish and eggs. This
totalled over a quarter of the food budget. The second biggest area was on
cereals and bakery products. These accounted for 16 percent of spending.
Dairy products comprised just over one-tenth of expenditure on food,
while fruit and vegetables together accounted for almost 20 percent of
spending. Miscellaneous food items comprised 15 percent of purchases.
Just under one-tenth of spending went to beverages such as coffee, tea,
and soda. Finally, the smallest categories in the typical US food budget
were fats and oils, at three percent, and sugar and sweets, at four
percent.
In conclusion, Americans spent a quarter of their at-home food budget in
2002 on meats, poultry, fish, and eggs.
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Means of Communication
Figure 1
Preferred Modes of Communication among
Male Students in HD 2 Class
Figure 1
Preferred Modes of Communication among
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Female Students in HD 2 Class
Means of Communication
The two pie charts illustrate preferred modes of communication for six
forms of media in a survey undertaken in two HD 2 classes, one male and
the other female. Both genders showed similar usage patterns of means of
communication.
First, the telephone emerged as the most popular mode for males with a
proportion of 27 percent. It ranked almost as high, at 22 percent with
females, but was tied in their case with text messaging. Text messaging
also ranked high with men, who allotted it one percent more. E-mail and
instant messenger were close thirds and fourths in popularity, scoring 17
percent and 16 percent respectively for men, 21 percent and 18 percent
for their counterparts. Last, male students gave the fax only 10 percent,
and letters even less, 7 percent; females reversed the same percentages.
To conclude, preferences for the six modes of communication were almost
identical for the sexes. Both favoured communicating by telephone and
text message the most, e-mail and instant messenger the second most, and
letter and fax the least. The only minor difference is that women
preferred communicating by letter and men by fax.
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Figure 1 Reasons for Choosing a University among Overseas Students
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Figure 1 shows 11 reasons why first year students from overseas chose
a particular university. The survey of 1,000 first year overseas
students was carried out at universities in the UK. The top three
reasons were teaching-related.
According to the graph, the main reason was the language of tuition.
At 95 percent of the sample, it was the main reason most students
gave for choosing a university. The second biggest factor was quality
of teachers, at 90 percent, followed by facilities, also at 90 percent.
Non-teaching factors were also important. Tuition costs were quoted
as a reason by 75 percent, and location was mentioned by 70 percent
of students. The cost of accommodation was also an important factor
for 80 percent of respondents. Almost two-thirds of students said that
the friendliness of the university was important.
In conclusion the various factors can be divided into two groups,
namely those related to teaching and non-teaching related. However,
the most important were the language and the teachers.
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Figure 1 Number of London Underground Station Passengers over the Course of a
46 Day
Figure 1 shows the number of passengers who are the users of
London underground station in a day. The graph showed the
number of people at a London underground station
fluctuated over 24 hours.
The busiest time of the day was in the morning. There was
a sharp increase between 06:00 and 08:00, with 400 people using
the station at 8 o'clock. After this the numbers dropped
quickly to less than 200 at 10 o'clock. Between 11 am and 3 pm
the number rose, with a plateau of just under 300 people using
the station.
In the afternoon, numbers declined, with less than 100 using the
station at 4 pm. There was then a rapid rise to a peak of 380 at
6pm. After 7 pm, numbers fell significantly, with only a slight
increase again at 8pm, tailing off after 9 pm.
Overall, the graph showed that the station was most crowded in
the early morning and early evening periods.
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Tables: types of cars
Table 1 Comparison of Four Small Cars
Make
Price
Country
of origin
Engine
size
Miles per
gallon
Toyota Corolla
$15,550
Japan
1400cc
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Volkswagen Golf
$18,250
Germany
1600cc
40
Ford Focus
$15,800
USA
1400cc
50
Nissan Micra
$15,500
Japan
1200cc
52
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The table compares four small cars on the basis of their price, engine size
and fuel consumption. Overall, the biggest car, the VW Golf, was the most
expensive and had the lowest fuel efficiency.
Cost is an important factor in buying a car. The most expensive car in the
group was the VW Golf, at over $18,000. This was three thousand dollars
more expensive than the other three cars, which all cost between $15,000
and $15,800. The German Volkswagen also had the biggest engine size. It
had a 1600cc engine. In contrast, the cheapest car in the group, the Nissan
Micra, had the smallest engine, at only 1200cc.
Fuel economy is also a significant factor to consider before buying a car.
The cheapest car in the group, the Nissan Micra, had the lowest fuel
consumption, at 52 miles per gallon. This figure was similar to the fuel
consumption for the other Japanese car, the Toyota Corolla, and for the
American car, the Ford Focus. However, the Volkswagen Golf, had the
worst fuel consumption, at only 40 miles per gallon. This was due to its
larger engine size.
In conclusion, the bigger the car, the more expensive it was and the lower
the fuel efficiency. Customers have to choose carefully between power,
features and cost before making their dream purchase.
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4 STRATEGIES IN WRITING
DISCUSSION
•
•
•
•
Explain - Give reason, explain scenario,
explain limitations
Compare - with the findings of other
research, relate different findings
Evaluate – expected, unexpected,
unsatisfactory, insignificant
Infer – develop your own viewpoints
REFER TO PAGE 182 FOR MORE DETAILS
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