Transcript Lexical Semantics

Introducing Lexical Semantics
Lecture 2
CLM
tt
Keyterms in semantics
• Sense (also sometimes intension)
• Reference (also sometimes extension)
• Denotation
Lexical semantics is primarily interested in establishing
and describing the senses of words. But what are words…
Sense and reference …
Basis for the distinction (Frege)
Reference
The Morning Star is the Evening Star
Sense
If there is an x such
that x is a star then x
is visible in the
morning
If there is an x such
that x is a star then
x is visible in the
evening
… sense and reference …
Transparent and opaque contexts
The girl with green eyes has brown eyes
No
Contradiction
contradiction
has modelled for
The real life model for
the girl in the picture
has brown eyes
Girl with green eyes
(in the picture)
John believes that…, John thinks that…, I dreamed that….
… sense and reference
Referring and attributive use of phrases (Donellan)
R
e
f
e
r
e
n
c
e
S
e
n
s
e
Speaker uses the phrase Smith’s murderer
to refer to Clark Kent and says of him that
he is insane
Smith’s murderer is insane
Speaker assumes that Smith has been murdered and
uses the phrase Smith’s murderer attributively:
if there is an x such that x has murdered Smith
then x is insane
Reference and denotation …
Reference is a relation between phrases and individuals
- it is a term belonging to pragmatics
- it is a term for a particular use of phrases (a speech act)
Denotation is a relation between lexical items and classes or sets
- it is a term belonging to semantics
- it is a term for the categorization of things
…reference and denotation
- may be used to refer to a particular set of things as
individuals, provided each satisfies two conditions
The children next door are always noisy
Children next door are always noisy
- cannot be used to refer to a particular set of things, but
specifies what the conditions are: if x is a child and if x
lives next door (no matter where), then x is noisy
•
•
•
•
•
Keyterms in morphology
Word = ?
Wordforms = {go, goes, went, going, gone}
Grammmatical words = {goIMP, goINF, goPresent,
goesPresent 3rd sg, wentPast, goingPresPtc, gonePrfPtc}
Lexical Units = {go (mad), went (to bed), gone
metric), …..} = a family of wordforms, each
member with a distinct sense
Lexeme = {GO} = a family of lexical units, a
dictionary entry (Cruse’s definition)
So how do we establish the senses of lexical units or lexemes…
Semantic Mirrors
• A formal method for
studying lexical
semantics, based on
translation equivalence
in parallel texts.
• Developed by Helge
Dyvik, Professor of
Linguistics, University
of Bergen
The translation relation (the t-relation)
Danish (L1)
selskab
English (L2)
t-relation
company
…
´Company´ is an actual translation of ’selskab’
The inverse t-relation (t*)
Danish (L1)
English (L2)
t-relation
selskab
t*-relation
company
…
If ´company, …´ is a proper translation of ’selskab’
then ’selskab’ is a proper translation of ’company, …’
- so, the t-relation is symmetric
Other properties of the t-relation
Danish (L1)
English (L2)
selskab
company
følge
train
Even though ’company’ is an actual translation of ’selskab’, and
’følge’ is an actual translation of ’company’, and ’train’ is an
actual translation of ’følge’, it does NOT follow that ’train’ is a
proper translation of ’selskab’
- so, the t-relation is not transitive
Resolving lexical ambiguity: t-images
[The first t-image of the target-word in L1 is the set of all the actually occurring
translations of it in L2]
prime
grunde
speculate
The first t-image of grunde
(Simplified for transparency)
Inverse t-images
[Inverse t-images are created by finding all the actual translations in L1 of each
word of the first t-image]
male
prime
= the first timage of grunde
grunde
spekulere
The inverse t-image of ’grunde’
(Simplified for transparency)
speculate
Secondary t-images
[The secondary t-image is created by creating the first t-image for each of the
words of the inverse t-image, except the original word]
scribble
male
grunde
prime
speculate
spekulere
invest
The secondary t-image of
’grunde’ (Simplified for transparency)
Restricted t-images
[Created by removing all words from the secondary t-image that are not members
of the first t-image]
scribble
male
prime
grunde
speculate
spekulere
invest
The restricted t-image of
’grunde’ (Simplified for transparency)
Consequences
By this back-and-forth procedure it is established that
’grunde’ in Danish has two unrelated senses, corresponding respectively to the sense of {prime} and that of
{speculate} (which we knew all along, of course – but this
was just for illustration). ’Grunde’, in other words, is
lexically ambiguous relative to this particular corpus of
English. In practice this means that whenever you meet
’grunde’ in a text for translation, you are facing a choice.
First and inverse t-images for ’selskab’
kompagni
følge forsamling
forlag
fir ma
bedrift
firm
grup pe
producent
fabrik
company
lag komsammen
party
selskab
fest
samfund
societet
kreds
parti
companionship
society
Second t-image for ’selskab’
[The second t-image is created by creating the first t-image for each of the words
of the inverse t-image, except ’selskab’ – impossible to show with circles]
{{company party group class way team stratum line layer incrustation cover}
{party fun fete festival feasting fest}
{company train retinue procession guide gathering}
{company firm factory business}
{company firm business establishment}
{party class game crowd area}
{company surroundings milieu circles atmosphere}
{society group country community}
{firm factory place}
{firm publishing_house publisher
{party group cell}
{party side share}
{company audience assembly}
{firm manufacturer}
{company visit}
{company force}
{companionship}
{society}
{company}}
Restricted t-image for ´selskab’
[The restricted t-image is created by removing all words not occurring in the first t-image]
{{company party}
{company firm}
{party}
{company}
{society}
{firm}
{companionship}}
firm
company
party
companionship
society
Three sensegroups of ’selskab’
Group 1: {{companionship}}
Group 2: {{society}}
Group 3: {{company firm} {company party} {company}
{firm} {party}}
So, the sense partitions of the first t-image is
{{companionship} {society} {company firm party}}
QED
Comparison with Bodelsen-Vinterberg
selskab sb. (et, -er)
1. (forening) society, association;
2. (hdl.) company; (især am.) corporation (fx a multinational corporation);
3. (selskabelig sammenkomst) party;
4. (gæster) company (fx entertain the company);
5. (rejseselskab etc.) party (fx a party of tourists);
6. (samvær) company; F society (fx I enjoyed his company (, society));
7. (omgang) company (fx he is not fit company for you);
Does not give companionship (= kammeratskab) nor firm (= firma)
Gives 2 senses associated with society, 4 with company, 2 with party
This is vagueness rather than ambiguity