Transcript IMEC Presentation - Rovira i Virgili University

Concise Writing &
Research Planning
Ciara O’ Sullivan
Second Lecture
23.11.2004
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Overview of class
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
Guide to writing concisely
 syntax
 tutorial

Guidelines to writing abstracts

Guidelines to planning research
 identification of tasks
 task timing and resources
 GANTT and PERT charts
 MS Project
 contingency planning
Common syntax errors
(syntax = [rules for] sentence building)
1.
2.
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3.
Word choice
a.
Delete uninformative words and avoid redundancy
b.
Use one word to replace a phrase
c.
Avoid grandiloquence or grandiose phrasing
d.
Avoid clichés and euphemisms
e.
Use synonyms
Sentence structure
a.
Agreement of subject and verb
b.
Pronoun reference
c.
Active and passive voice
d.
Nouns from verbs
e.
American and British styles
Paragraph structure
1. Word choice
A paper will be more readable if words are used
economically. Writing concisely may be contrary to
common practice in some countries where authors are
paid by the number of words published! Remember, your
goal is to facilitate communication, which is accomplished
through concise and lucid writing in a well-organized
manner.
a. Delete uninformative words and avoid redundancy
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Examples:
brief in duration
sufficient in number
The wound was of a serious nature
The rock is red in color
It was precooled before use
We repeated the experiment again and again
1. Word choice
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past history;
mix together;
original source;
advance planning;
globular in shape;
more preferable than;
seem to appear;
for a period of two days;
the work will be completed in the not-too-distant future;
The reaction rate was examined and found to vary considerably;
The results would seem to indicate the possibility that impurities
might be present;
As far as my own experiments are concerned, they show…;
It has been found that … ;
It is interesting to note that … (del);
Needless to say, … (del).
b. Use one word to replace a phrase
Many popular expressions can be expressed as a single word,
or are better omitted altogether.
For example,
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At this point of time
The reason was because
In view of the fact that
Was observed to be
In the near future
In most cases
It would appear that
Is suggestive of
As to whether
In the vicinity of
It was evident that
In the event that
Now
Because
Because
Was
Soon
Mostly
Delete
Suggests
Whether
Near
Evidently
If (should)
c. Avoid grandiloquence or grandiose
phrasing
The word grandiloquence is itself grandiose. It implies a
pompous style that impresses no one and provokes ridicule.
Conciseness and clarity should apply to scientific writing.
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Compare the following sentences:
Computations were conducted on the data - The data were
calculated.
It may seem reasonable to suggest that the necrotic effect may
possibly due to toxins - Necrosis may be caused by toxins.
In studies pertaining to identification of phenolic derivatives,
drying of the paper gives less satisfactory visualization Phenolic derivatives are easier to see if the paper is left wet.
A method, which was found to be expedient and not very
difficult to accomplish and which possessed a high degree of
accuracy on the results, was devised whereby …. - An easy,
accurate way to …
d. Avoid clichés and euphemisms
cliché - [fr] printing plate; negative; phototype; = « banalité »;
chenqiang landiao
euphemism - eu (= well), phem (= to speak); weiwan de shuofa
e.g., eugenics, eulogy, euphony (pleasing sound), euthanasia (anle-si)
Clichés and euphemisms are rarely helpful and often cryptic (secret,
with a hidden meaning or a meaning not easily seen).
all in all - (delete)
if and when – if
Some common euphemisms are simply awkward; For ex.,
The patient expired; The patient passed away; The patient
succumbed;
The patient breathed his last; The patient has gone to his rest.
These can be replaced by « The patient died »
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d. Avoid clichés and euphemisms
The following terms are usually better omitted or rephrased:
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a majority of,
an order of magnitude faster,
are of the same opinion,
as a consequence of,
as a matter of fact,
as seen from our study it is evident that,
based on the fact that,
first of all,
for the reason that,
has the capacity of,
in a satisfactory manner,
it has long been known that,
it is clear that much additional work will be required before a complete
understanding,
owing to the fact that,
the question as to whether,
there is reason to believe.
e. Use of
synonyms
A synonym is a word that has the same or nearly the same meaning as
another word. The principal reason to employ synonyms is to avoid
monotony from using the same term repeatedly. For ex.,
The subject demonstrated a marked sensitivity to the
allergen. After receiving the medication, she showed marked
improvement. This is a marked medical achievement.
Improved version: The subject demonstrated a marked sensitivity to
the allergen. After receiving the medication, she showed significant
improvement. This is an extraordinary medical achievement.
Synonyms for common words can be found in a thesaurus, a
dictionary, and some word processing programs. Understanding the
nuances of synonyms can be difficult for non-native-anglophone
people. The best way to improve your grasp is to read Englishlanguage authors and practice your own writing.
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2. Sentence structure
1. Agreement of subject and verb
The number of the verb must agree with the number of the
subject. e.g.
From this work has come improved antibiotic drugs.
From this work have come improved antibiotic drugs.
An evaluation of the experimental results, as well as
the clinical findings, are described.
An evaluation of the experimental results, as well
as the clinical findings, is described.
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2. Sentence structure
2. Recognising irregular plurals. (for ex., a common mistake is
to use a singular verb with data, formulae, and radii)
3. When singular and plural subjects are joined by either … or
and neither … nor, the verb must agree with the nearest
subject.
For ex.,
- Either the samples or the apparatus were contaminated.
- Either the samples or the apparatus was contaminated.
(correct)
Note - Either and neither always take a singular verb. For
ex.,
Either of the explanations is acceptable;
Neither of the samples is large.
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b. Pronoun reference
An antecedent is the word, phrase, or clause to which a
pronoun refers. A sentence may be confusing if the pronoun
and its antecedent are not clearly identifiable. A missing
antecedent cannot be assumed to be « obvious from the
context », and an ambiguous reference should always be
corrected.
e.g.,
The monkey was operated on by the surgeon when he was 6
weeks old. (who was 6 weeks old?)
The ambiguity is removed by positioning the pronoun closer to its
antecedent:
The monkey, when he was 6 weeks old, was operated on by….
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Better still is to move the relative clause to the beginning, where it
will not separate the subject from the principal verb:
When he was 6 weeks old, the monkey was operated on by …..
c. Active and passive voice
English verbs have two voices: active and passive. In the active voice,
the subject performs the action, while in the passive voice the subject
receives the action.
As fashions change with time, so does the style of scientific writing.
Prior to 1900, scientists routinely used the active voice and personal
pronouns in their reports, making such statements as, « I made the
following experiment », « I cannot say », ‘I would point out that … ».
Then the passive voice gradually gained popularity, perhaps from the
belief that its impersonal style denoted greater professionalism.
However, the consistent overuse and misuse of the passive voice
devitalized scientific writing.
Today, the trend is once again turned toward clarity of expression and
the freer, more concise writing that results from habitual use of the
active voice. Style experts now prefer the active voice, which is more
direct, sounds more natural and usually save words.
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Comparison:
It was suggested by Dr. Smith that the test be postponed.
Dr. Smith suggested postponing the test.
A detailed description of the apparatus is presented in this
report.
This report presents a detailed description of the apparatus.
This is not to say that you must entirely avoid using the passive
voice, which can be quite effective if used sparingly. By placing
the receiver of the action as the subject of the sentence, it
receives subtle emphasis. e.g.,
The relationship F = ma was discovered by Newton.
Newton discovered the relationship F = ma.
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The first version would be appropriate in a text on the history of
physics, whereas the second could be used in a biography of
Sir Isaac Newton.
d. Nouns from verbs
Verbs can express action. For many action verbs there are
nouns of similar derivation that expresses the result of the
action.
For ex.,
examine-examination and perform-performance.
Using the noun form expresses the action indirectly. Your
writing will be more vigorous if such nouns are replaced by
the verb forms. Ex.,
By analysis of the data
By analyzing the data
An evaluation of the data was done The data were evaluated
The installation of the new equipment has been carried out
The new equipment has been installed.
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d. Nouns from verbs
Exercise: Rewrite the following sentenses using the active voice
and trying to eliminate redundant words.
1.His performance of the test was adequate.
2.We made at least two analyses on each sample.
3.Evaporation of alcohol from the mixture takes place rapidly.
4.Clarity in writing is my intention.
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e. American and British styles
British writing is different from American writing in certain forms of
punctuation and spelling. Whatever style is used will not really affect
the reader’s understanding of the text, but you should be consistent
and employ the same style throughout a work.
Spelling American - British
connection - connexion
inflection - inflexion
defense - defence
practice - practice (n.)
practise (v.)
center - centre
liter - litre
meter - metre (unit of measure) meter (instrument)
behavior - behaviour
color - colour
distill - distil
catalog - catalogue
analyze - analyse
catalyze - catalyse
judgment - judgement
aging - ageing
acknowledgment - acknowledgement
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e. American and British styles
The digraphs ae and oe in words of Latin or Greek
derivation are
retained in British style:
anesthesia - anaesthesia
cesium - caesium
diarrhea - diarrhoea
hematite - haematite
leukemia - leukaemia
fetus - fœtus
Punctuation: American - comma after e.g. and i.e.;
none in British
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3. Paragraph structure
In its simplest form, a lucid paragraph contains a topic
sentense and clearly related supporting sentenses. The
topic sentence comprises the main point or idea of the
paragraph, while supporting sentences provide detail or
ancillary information. The following are basic guidelines
for paragraph design.
1. Cover only one main point or idea in each paragraph.
2. Each sentence should establish or support the topic
of the paragraph.
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3. Paragraph structure
All of the patient data were kept in files. The absence of even
one clerk caused delays in the monthly reporting. Finally,
management decided to interview some system analysts.
(The connection between the three sentences is not clear.
Although the meaning can be inferred, it is better to state it
outright).
All of the patient data were kept in paper files, which took
much staff time to maintain. The absence of even one clerk
would delay the monthly patient reports. Management wanted
to computerize record-keeping, which would take less time
and be more reliable, and finally decided to interview some
systems analysts to develop the new system.
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3. Paragraph structure
4. Keep a consistent point of view
That is, maintain the same grammatical voice (active or
passive) throughout the paragraph.
5. Use parallel construction to male the paragraph easier to
understand.
In an attempt to avoid monotony, some writers vary the sentence
construction and thereby hinder conprehension. Ex.,
A 10 mg dose produces no effect, a 20 mg dose produces a small
effect, but patients show a noticeable effect from a 30 mg dose.
A 10 mg dose produces no effect, a 20 mg dose produces a small
effect, but patients show a noticeable effect from a 30 mg dose.
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Golden rules
Abstract should be 1/2 to 3/4 page long
Abstract should be LAST thing written
Summary of the key findings of YOUR work
Should encourage the reader to read on
Any info included in abstract MUST be included in body of work
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Guidelines to writing abstracts
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Why is your scientific contribution important?
The construction of the science is based on the communication of the research results.
Previous works are the
basis for yours, when you
Literature
Research
enter in the loop (intake,
production, output and
feedback) you become a
consumer and a producer
Production
and so on till the end of
your research career. Within the circle it is relevant to
communicate your results as brief and clear as possible.
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Preliminary research
Question
yes
answer
no
New research
conclusions
Project design
results
manuscript
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Lab work
Dissemination & retrieval
COMMUNICATE!!!!!
Be aware of the contribution of your research to the
Scientific Community and try to share it with your
colleagues
How?
Communicating your results (written, oral,
others)
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When you consider you
have finished an
homogeneous part, be sure
before finishing labwork.
Arrange and organize
your notes, references or
any other material,
display and classify it.
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How to start
to write a manuscript?
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Organize your
information
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Structure your information in
separate blocks
Notes, commentaries, references,
objectives
Samples, individuals, sampling,
analytical and statistical
methods, ...
Answers to the objetives support-ed by
numerical, graphical or any other forms
Analysis of the results, comparison with other
authors
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Try to integrate your puzzle of information
And structure it!
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Structure of a scientific paper
• Title
• Results
• Authors’ names and
• Discussion
affiliation
• Conclusions
• Abstract, keywords
• Acknowledgements
• Introduction
• References
• Material and methods
• Annexes
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Keywords
Keywords should not be “empty words” or express
generalities.
Remember that it will be the keyword that will
facilitate people to find the paper – and cite it! (which
is what we want, of course!)
So, for example in the article we use to use a
keyword ‘mayonnaise’ would be incorrect but ‘homemade mayonnaise makes it more specific.
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Abstract
The abstract, summary or synopsis is, like the
title and keywords, one element within the
manuscript of considerable relevant
importance.
The retrieval of the paper and its reading
depend greatly on it.
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Abstract
The main feature of an abstract is its size.
In very few words (200-300) the abstract should
inform about the main aspects of the manuscript
and respond to why, what, how and the results
and their interpretation.
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Characteristics of an abstract
Abstract
Content
Brief
Informative
Concise
Condensed
Format
Structured
Single paragraph
Short sentences, but not telegraphed
No references, tables or figures
No acronyms, abbreviations..
No excessive details
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Abstract
Basic justification for conducting the study (background
info)
Research objectives
Basic Methods Used
Specific Results of YOUR work
Major Conclusions
Any info included in the abstract should be included in
the body of the article
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Abstract
Should NOT include details of experiment
Should NOT include generalities and results of previous
works
Does not have to contain everything that is included in
the paper
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Ask yourself
Does my abstract:
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•
Clearly state the topic/goal
•
Clearly state the general approach/method
•
Clearly state the main outcome and
consequences
•
Contain trivial information or results which
are entirely predictable (remove them!)
Abstract Exercise
Identify points to include in abstract





Background
Importance of results – what’s new
Methods used
Specific new results obtained
Major conclusions
In groups of 4 make attempt to draft abstract
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Abstract Exercise
Background

Autosterilisation (i.e. Elimination of salmonella) of mayonnaise by
various parameters
What’s new about the results?

Influence of various oils and types of vinegars on antimicrobial
properties
Methods used



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Mayonnaise prepared with different vinegars and oils as acidulants –
acetic acid used as a control
Samples inoculated with salmonella
pH and [acetic acid] measured
Abstract Exercise

Results
– At 20oC best autosterilisation with white wine vinegar mayo
– Autosterilisation, but at a slower rate when white wine
vinegar contained garlic, tarragon, cider or spirit vinegar
– With lowered acetic acid content less salmonella killed
– Results much better at 20oC than 4oC
– At 20oC grapeseed, soya, olive (w/ basil or garlic) >
rapeseed, groundnut, hazelnut, sunflower > blended olive oil

Major conclusions
– The type of vinegar used for acidulation has a strong effect
on autosterilisation properties due to acetic acid content
– Oils of different origins have varying effects on killing of
salmonella and garlic/basil observed to enhance this effect
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Abstract Exercise
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Abstract Homework Exercise
Modelling the pH of mayonnaise by the ratio of egg
to vinegar
2.
Auto-oxidate effect of Glucose Oxidase and
Catalase in Mayonnaises of Different oxidative
susceptibility
I.
Product Trials
II.
Mathematical Modelling
3. Detection of Salmonella in food by a 3 days PCR
based method
4. Neural Network Modelling of the fate of Salomonella
in home made mayonnaise prepared with citric acid
1.
For preparation in discussion in small group tutorials
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Research Planning
Research Planning
Research planning is an essential part of and research
project
Must identify





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Tasks to be carried out
Time required to carry them out
Resources required to carry them out
‘Expected’ results and contigency planning
Deliverables and milestones
SMART Research Planning
GOAL: (also known as SCOPE) – is to
define what overall the project will
accomplish and what will be different as a
result
 OBJECTIVE: what the project is trying to
achieve – should be SMART objectives,
Specific Measurable Attainable Realistic
Time bound objectives

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Milestones & deliverables


Milestone: a point in time representing a key
or intermediate event that marks progress
Deliverable: a tangible item contributing to the
success of the project
NOT: milestone: completion of phase 1; interim
progress report …
deliverable: a greater understanding of the
processes ….
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SMART Research Planning
Ask two key questions:
1. What will the project do and how will
we know if it’s going according to
plan?
2. What will the project deliver and how
will we know if it’s a success?
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Can Ph.D. students plan research ?
YES! Together with supervisor who has more global view of
project
Look at the grant application of the project that you are
working on
You will see “Targets, milestones, deliverables…..Year 1,
Year 2 and Year 3”
Your supervisor (or the project PI) has taken a horizon view
of where you should be after 3 years
Usually this is an aspiration or “Best Guess”
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Important for future career!
“To get the grant, a PI has had
to pay at least lip-service to ideas of
Project Planning and Management”
……but they have not had any
formal training and therefore they depend
on their years of experience of getting
PhDs through
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Thought processes…….
You
Supervisor
90% time
100% Motivation
Little idea of what’s required
“It’s up to the supervisor to
come up with the ideas, not
me”
“If this project fails, I’ll have to
write up a lousy Masters”
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10% time
Changeable motivation
Good idea of what’s required (?)
“Well, I have 4 other students …”
“I’ll have to keep the funders sweet”
Some typical PhD scenarios
Learn a lot in Year 1 and may even have no data that
will end up in Ph.D
Get dispirited in Year 1 as nothing works
Cul-de-sacs
Have a “Purple patch” in Year 2 when you cash in and
get loads of data
Disagree with supervisor over when you have enough
data
Take forever writing up
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Good Habits in Project Manageme
Agree overall staged research outcomes for the year with
supervisor
Targets should be challenging but within reach
“By Christmas, I should have that, then by….”
Detailed plans for next 3 months work
Allow % contingency
Broad strokes for 6, 9 and 12 months
Put it all on a chart
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Manage your time: Plan the Week Ahead
On Fridays, write down in your diary what you should be
doing next week
Complete week’s work with report, summary..
Hit the ground running on Monday
(Of course this doesn’t really apply since PhDs work on
week-ends like their supervisors before them !)
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“Macro” and “Micro” Planning
Plan your day the previous evening and make priority list
- Morning:
experiment 2 of 6 replicates
-Afternoon:
data analysis, see boss, order chemicals
Seminar at 4pm, tennis at 6pm
Don’t over-pack the day with a TO DO list
Allow % for reading, thinking, peer chats
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Reports: Blocks of Work
Summarise data logically and DISCUSS with references
(Endnote)
Do one complete report every Quarter
Match outcomes to agreed targets with supervisor
Circulate draft to supervisor and objective colleague
Reflective time to consider next steps
Archived reports make Ph.D writing easy
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Why do some Ph.D. projects fail ?
Shaky hypothesis
PhD student not suitable
No fall-back position when path blocked
Poor supervision
Bad project process
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Project Management Tools
1. Define the goal and set your eyes on the prize
(Shackleton versus Scott)
Write down a checklist of deliverables that will comprise the
Goal
- eg. Establishing methods, Theses Chapter
titles…….
Read several excellent PhD theses NOW to see the
standard and how to get there
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2. Make a list of the jobs to be don
Write a plan to get you to the first point on the journey
Some jobs will have to be done to get the ball rolling
If the job is vague, break it down into several jobs and
estimate the time required
…………eg. To look at where a drug is going in the
brain, you need the following skills….
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Sub-Project 1 out of 8. For each
job……..
Resources required ?
Skills required ? Training ?
Identifiable milestones
State all assumptions
Dependencies outside your control
High risk areas
Timeline and how you arrived at it
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3. Leadership – it’s your projec
Take ownership
Show your supervisor that you can work to an agreed
plan without needing to be micro-managed
Meet your supervisor once a week or in a team setting
and have specific goals in mind: updating results,
discussion points, next steps and when you aim to
have them
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4. Manage Expectations
Maximise chances of success
Allow a margin for error
- Order enough cell culture consumables to allow for an
infection
- If a plan takes 6 months to give an all-or-nothing piece of
data, why not have something going along in parallel ?
What’s Plan B ?
- Test a hypothesis in a simple established system
(eg. Laboratorio de Investigacion project)
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5. Monitoring progress-vibes
Reports are regular
You are having fun and are working como una burra
Morale and confidence is high
You feel your ability has increased
Good lab atmosphere
Milestones are being met
A cerveza with the supervisor isn’t so bad after all
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Bad vibes
“Nodding dogs” in meetings
“Everything’s under control”
You procrastinate
You change the agreed research goalposts
Crisises and mistakes abound
You don’t meet supervisor deadlines and don’t discuss
why
There’s no evidence of real progress over a sustained
period
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6. Communication
Tools: progress reports and meetings
Show lab books to supervisor and peers regularly
Resolve issues and review progress
Keep assumptions, deliverables, timelines to the fore.
Avoid supervisor “howzitgoin’” sessions and get specific
on how to move project forward
Anticipate log-jams
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Meetings in Project Management
Good meetings smash obstacles, resolve issues, move
project forward
Many drift along without purpose and have no agenda
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Good meetings (in general) …..
Clear objectives
(Identify participants/resources needed)
Base agenda on above
Outline any advance prep
Set time constraints on each agenda item
Chair drives through agenda
Are minuted with Action Items for next meeting
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In managing your project……
Be wary of meetings if the following are not met
- Clear objective
- Required prep outlined (if needed)
- Why do I need to go ??
- How long will it last ?
- (Who is the Chair ?)
University supervisors are not trained to run good
meetings
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Effective Lab Groups
Clear goals and objectives
Understanding and interdependence
Cohesiveness
Trust between group leader, postdocs, PhD students
and technicians
Potent force: effect > sum of parts
Like Celtic FC last Thursday, or Ireland rugby last
Saturday…..
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Success Indicators
For your performance:
Feedback Questionnaire
Evaluate planned workplan with achieved workplan
Regular review with supervisor and Graduate
Studies Committee
How are you shaping up with respect to peers ?
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…For the Project
Goal still clear ?
Milestones being met ?
Are they well-defined or woolly ?
Are my plans for the next few weeks clear and
achievable ?
Is there a margin for error achieved through a plausible
fall-back position ?
Am I writing regular reports ?
Am I disseminating information ?
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But getting a Ph.D is never that
simple………
You need to develop good problem-solving skills
- Read good papers and attend lots of seminars Brainstorm
- Ideal solution ? Is there a less idyllic but acceptable one ?
Plan B
- Can I get an expert to do this piece while I focus on
another aspect in parallel ?
………………..eg James Watson in the Double Helix
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But getting a Ph.D is never that
simple………
The mental side can be tough
- Stress: when you are not in control of events
- Keep a sense of proportion
- Stay in contact with peers
- Walk away at the end of the day
- Be conscious of your own strengths and weaknesses
- Changing project at the end of Year 1 is possible and you
could still get out in the four years
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This isn’t what I thought a Ph.D was
about………
But: most theses are not earth-shattering
They are achieved by mature, hard-working, dogged,
disciplined, tenacious people
Writing, reading, mulling over data, talking to colleagues, going
to meetings is part of the deal
Justifying over-run on agreed 4 years (and soon will change to
3 years is not good for anybody………….hence even more
need for good project and time management
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Tools for planning & management
Gantt Chart
Pert Chart
Contingency Planning
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What is a Gantt chart?
A Gantt chart is a horizontal bar chart developed as a production
control tool in 1917 by Henry L. Gantt, an American engineer
and social scientist. Frequently used in project management, a
Gantt chart provides a graphical illustration of a schedule that
helps to plan, coordinate, and track specific tasks in a project.
Gantt charts may be simple versions created on graph paper or
more complex automated versions created using project
management applications such as Microsoft Project or Excel.
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What is a Gantt chart?
A Gantt chart is constructed with a horizontal axis representing the
total time span of the project, broken down into increments (for
example, days, weeks, or months) and a vertical axis representing the
tasks that make up the project (for example, if the project is outfitting
your computer with new software, the major tasks involved might be:
conduct research, choose software, install software).
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What is a Gantt chart?
Horizontal bars of varying lengths represent the sequences, timing,
and time span for each task.
Using the same example, you would put "conduct research" at the
top of the verticle axis and draw a bar on the graph that represents
the amount of time you expect to spend on the research, and then
enter the other tasks below the first one and representative bars at
the points in time when you expect to undertake them.
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2004
What is a Gantt chart?
The bar spans may overlap, as, for example, you may conduct research and
choose software during the same time span.
As the project progresses, secondary bars, arrowheads, or darkened bars
may be added to indicate completed tasks, or the portions of tasks that have
been completed.
A vertical line is used to represent the report date
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2004
Gantt & Pert Charts
Gantt charts give a clear illustration of project status, but one
problem with them is that they don't indicate task dependencies
- you cannot tell how one task falling behind schedule affects
other tasks.
The PERT chart, another popular project management charting
method, is designed to do this.
Automated Gantt charts store more information about tasks, such
as the individuals assigned to specific tasks, and notes about
the procedures. They also offer the benefit of being easy to
change, which is helpful.
Charts may be adjusted frequently to reflect the actual status of
project tasks as, almost inevitably, they diverge from the original
plan.
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What is a Pert Chart?
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A PERT chart is a project management tool used
to schedule, organize, and coordinate tasks
within a project. PERT stands for Program
Evaluation Review Technique, a methodology
developed by the U.S. Navy in the 1950s to
manage the Polaris submarine missile program.
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A similar methodology, the Critical Path Method
(CPM), which was developed for project
management in the private sector at about the
same time, has become synonymous with PERT,
so that the technique is known by any variation
on the names: PERT, CPM, or PERT/CPM.
What is a Pert Chart?
Numbered rectangles are nodes and represent events or milestones
Directional arrows represent dependent tasks that must be completed
sequentially
Diverging arrow directions indicate possibly concurrent tasks
Dotted lines indicate dependent tasks that do not require resources
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What is a Pert Chart?
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A PERT chart A PERT chart presents a graphic
illustration of a project as a network diagram
consisting of numbered nodes (either circles or
rectangles) representing events, or milestones in the
project linked by labelled vectors (directional lines)
representing tasks in the project.
The direction of the arrows on the lines indicates the
sequence of tasks. In the diagram, for example, the
tasks between nodes 1, 2, 4, 8, and 10 must be
completed in sequence. These are called dependent
or serial tasks.
What is a Pert Chart?
The tasks between nodes 1 and 2, and nodes 1 and 3 are not
dependent on the completion of one to start the other and
can be undertaken simultaneously. These tasks are called
parallel or concurrent tasks.
Tasks that must be completed in sequence but that don't
require resources or completion time are considered to
have event dependency. These are represented by dotted
lines with arrows and are called dummy activities. For
example, the dashed arrow linking nodes 6 and 9 indicates
that the system files must be converted before the user test
can take place, but that the resources and time required to
prepare for the user test (writing the user manual and user
training) are on another path.
Numbers on the opposite sides of the vectors indicate the time
allotted for the task.
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2004
Pert & Gantt Chart - software
The
Pert Chart is often preferred over the Gantt Chart as it is
easier and clearer to read for simple projects. However, for
complex projects it is very difficukt to read and generally both Pert
and Gantt charts are used.
There are numerous software programs available for making Pert
and Gantt charts, the most popular of which is Microsoft Project.
For free trial downloads:
MS Project
http://www.microsoft.com/office/trial/default.mspx
SMARTDRAW
http://www.smartdraw.com/
Good tutorial with quicktime video at http://www.computer-trainingsoftware.com/project2000.htm
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Examples – GANTT real vs planned
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Examples - GANTT
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Examples - CPM
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Examples - Pert
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Contingency Planning
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For each task identified in your research plan, you
should carry out a risk analysis and based on the risk
analysis a contingency plan should be outlined.
Thus for each task label tham as being of ‘Low’,
‘Medium’ or ‘High’ risk and for the medium or high risks,
outline what you could do or what alternate path there is
if the task cannot be achieved with the current workplan
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Contingency planning should also include the
possibilities of reagents from particular providers being
out of stock, equipment breakdown etc.
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Mayonnaise Project
Identify tasks
Identify resources
Identify timing of tasks and interdependency
Deliverables and Milestones
Outline contingency planning
Work together in groups of 4 and do preliminary
workplan for mayonnaise project
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But don’t overcomplicate things!
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Workplan
Tasks
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Literature search to see state of the art
Identify project goals
Identify oils and vinegars to be used
Purchase oils and vinegars
Purchase salmonella culture
Purchase eggs
Prepare mayonnaise
Prepare salmonella culture
Measure pH
Measure Acetic Acid Content
Analyse Results
Plot results
Prepare manuscript
Submit
Workplan
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Timing
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Literature search to see state of the art – 1 week
Identify project goals – 3 days
Identify oils and vinegars to be used – 3 days
Purchase oils and vinegars – 3 days
Purchase salmonella culture – 3 days
Purchase eggs – 3 days
Prepare mayonnaise – 1 day for each batch (14 days)
Prepare salmonella culture – 1 day for each batch (7days
Measure pH – 1 day for each batch
Measure Acetic Acid Content – 1 day for each batch
Analyse Results – 1 week
Plot results – 1 week
Prepare manuscript – 3 weeks
Submit
Workplan
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Resources
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Oils
Vinegars
Eggs
Salmonella culture
BM test kit
Genral lab reagents
– pH meter
– Culture facilities
– Microscope
– Technician
– Student
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Gantt Chart
Task
Literature search
Identify project goals
Identify oils and vinegars
Purchase oils and vinegars
Purchase salmonella culture
Purchase eggs
Prepare mayonnaise
Prepare salmonella culture
Measure pH
Measure Acetic Acid Content
Plot results
Analyse Results
Prepare manuscript
Submit
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1
2
3
4
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9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58
Pert Chart
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Workplan
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Deliverables
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Purchase of raw materials
Preparation of mayonnaise
pH measurement
Acetic Acid Content
Milestones
– Correlation of acidulation and oils on autosterilisation of
mayonnaise
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Workplan
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Contingency Planning
– No emulsion formed - change oils; change egg to oil to
acidulant ration
– No autosterilisation observed – change egg to oil to acidulant
ratio
– No trend between oil/acidulant content and killing of
salmonella – re-design experiment to include other parameters
OR this could indicate a GO/NO-GO POINT.
– A Go/no Go Point can be reached when the project cannot
proceed as previously planned and thus must be started over,
dramatically modified or abandoned.
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Homework
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A workplan,
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incorporating identification of research tasks,
time and resources required to carry out
research tasks,
identification of deliverables and milestones
and their timing as well a contingency plan,
should be prepared.
This workplan will also include identification of
required resources and a Gantt/Pert type chart.