Transcript Snímka 1
GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE Synthetic and analytical types of languages Analytical verb-forms: function word + full /content word continuous forms perfect forms forms of the future interrogative forms negative forms forms of the passive voice Synthetic verb-forms: inflectional morphemes + inner flexions GRAMMAR =study of rules governing the use of a language PRESCRIPTIVE APPROACH TO GRAMMAR prescribes grammatical norms DESCRIPTIVE APPROACH TO GRAMMAR describes how language is used in practice THE SUBFIELDS OF GRAMMAR phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. In traditional terms: morphology and syntax SYNTAX (Greek: syn=together + assein= arrange; Latin: syntaxis) deals with the structure of sentences MORPHOLOGY (Greek: morphé= form/structure + logos= word) = branch of linguistics that studies word structure = the study of how words are formed out of smaller units called morphemes = study of morphemes and the way they are joined together to make words L. Bloomfield: MORPHEME =smallest meaningful unit in a given language = different realisations (morphs) in different context e.g. the verb morpheme “do“ = do, does, don´t Such alternating morphs of a morpheme = allomorphs. ALLOMORPHS=variants of a single morpheme: pl.-s: /-z/,/-s/,/iz/ FREE: lexical functional BOUND: derivational inflectional MORPHEMES CLASSIFICATION OF WORD CLASSES (PARTS OF SPEECH) Full / content/ notional / words = open classes (can form new words) Function words = closed classes A lot of English words belong to more than one word class. NOUNS (Latin nomen = name) = person, place, thing, idea, animal, quality, activity, state, event, Distinctive features of nouns: noun-forming derivational affixes the threefold inflectional sibilant suffix marking by determiners fixed position in the sentence substitutable by pronouns Some nouns: the same form as verbs graphically different phonetically different CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS COMMON NOUNS PROPER NOUNS names of individuals = personal names, geographical names, names of a group of individuals CONCRETE NOUNS - definite objects ABSTRACT NOUNS - quality, action, state, ideas, concepts COLLECTIVE NOUNS – groups of people or things MATERIAL NOUNS - do not require limiting modifiers - usually have no plural forms MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF NOUNS 1) SIMPLE NOUNS: no affixes 2) DERIVATIVE NOUNS: prefixes: un-, mis-, pre-, for-; anti-, ex-, il-, -in-, non-, sub-, super-, vice-, suffixes: -al, -ance, -ence, -ant, -ar, -er, -or, -ion, -iour, -ledge, -ment, -y, -ee; -age, -ce, -cy, -ry, -ty, -ity, -ness, -ation, -dom, -ess, -hood, -ian, -ism, -ist, -ship -ing forms used as nouns - diminutives: -let, -ing, -ie, -ock, -ette -ian, -er, -ese, -an, -ish, -ite Nouns with 2 suffixes: -ishness 3) COMPOUNDS words joined together referring to a single object N stem + N stem Adj stem + N stem Adv stem + N stem Verb stem + N stem CN with –ing forms CN with a linking element: - a vowel/consonant - a preposition - a conjunction DERIVATIONAL COMPOUNDS OTHER WORD FORMATION PROCESSES CONVERSION = lexemes change their word class without adding affixes V>N Adj > N N>V Adj > V Adv > V N > Adj Adv > Adj Adv > N BLENDING; CLIPPING; GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF NUMBER Countable Ns = sg + pl; valley; country; BUT: Kennedy; photo; BUT: hero; cargo; VOICING PLURAL: wife; BUT: roof; dwarf; MUTATED PLURAL: Englishman; BUT: German; -en PLURAL: child; BUT: brother; UNINFLECTED PLURAL: sheep; BUT: oyster : FOREIGN PLURAL: phenomenon; analysis; bacterium; BUT: focus; larva; antenna; index; PLURAL IN COMPOUNDS bedroom; postman; brother-in-law; passer-by; forget-me-not; PLURAL IN COLLECTIVE NOUNS - in sg. followed by Vs in sg.: foliage, machinery; - in sg. followed by Vs in pl.: cattle; vermin; - in sg. used with Vs in sg. or pl.: committee; police; Ns in pl. - V in pl.: clothes, goods; pyjamas, scissors; Ns with -s – V in sg: billiards; mumps; news; BUT: statistics; the same sg + pl = V in sg. or pl.: series; species; PLURAL OF NAMES OF NATIONS Switzerland: sg. a Swiss, pl. many Swiss, nation: the Swiss The Netherlands = Dutchman, Dutchmen, nation: the Dutch COUNTABILITY COUNTABLE Ns: living beings or things with a definite form; some abstract Ns; sg. and pl.; articles; numerals; How many? few; UNCOUNTABLE Ns: sth can be measured but not counted, without shape/limits; 1 form; the; no numerals; How much? little; material, liquids, substances: snow, iron, water, gold abstract qualities and ideas: courage, success, peace UC in EN, BUT: gossip, information, hair, homework, news, soap UC in pl.= kinds, extension, intensity: wines, waters, sands, heats C/U = glass, iron, paper Partitives GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF GENDER OE = grammatical gender; ModE = natural gender: male= masculine; female= feminine; inanimate things= neuter gender-forming suffix -ess: actress other suffixes: heroine, widower, usherette gender expressed lexically: - by different words: mother – father - by pronouns: wolf – she-wolf - by words indicating the gender: male reader – female reader Nouns with a generic term + a pair: horse; pig; sheep; monarch COMMON GENDER singer, journalist, neighbour, student = pronouns - male or female; A pet: F = cat, parrot; car, ship; M = dog, horse, canary PERSONIFICATION (in poetry): Masculine = Ns - strength, inflexibility, resistance, necessity - names of winds, rivers, mountains summer, autumn, winter, the sun, anger, love, murder, war, death Feminine = Ns denoting tenderness, feableness, loveliness - names of countries (ref. to the nation), towns, universities the moon, the earth, mercy, charity, faith, hope, modesty, justice GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF CASE OE = 4 cases: N, G, D, Acc. ModE: the common case = uninflected form the possessive/genitive case = inflected by: -´s in sg: a girl´s book; my mother-in-law´s pen; Peter and Paul´s quarrel; -´ in pl.: girls´ school; BUT: children´s toys; Dickens´/ Dickens´s novel; DEPENDENT GENITIVE proper names: Paul´s car; personal nouns: my sister´s school personal indefinite pronouns: someone´s passport names of animals: dog´s life collective nouns: government´s decision geographical names: Slovakia´s export; BUT: institutional names: the school´s history expressions of time, space, weight, distance: two week´s work names of seasons/months/days: Sunday´s newspaper with words: sun, moon, earth, world: the earth´s surface with words: ship, boat, vessel: ship´s cargo with personification (in poetry): wind´s whistle fixed expressions: by a hair´s breadth THE OF-CONSTRUCTION / OF-GENITIVE refers to: things when we cannot form a compound parts of things abstract nouns partitives geographical notions some other nouns THE ABSOLUTE / ELYPTICAL GENITIVE = without a following noun: when it is clear what / who we are talking about when referring to work-places, shops, banks, houses: THE DOUBLE GENITIVE = when a noun is determined by: articles numerals some demonstrative pronouns DETERMINERS = words used in front of common nouns CENTRAL DETERMINERS = mutually exclusive 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) articles possessive demonstrative assertive; nonassertive negative universal dual WH-determiners DETERMINERS = determine (affect) the meaning of the noun PREDETERMINERS = precede the required CD in a N phrase: - quantifying - fractional - intensifying - multiplying POSTDETERMINERS = follow the required CD in a N phrase - cardinal numerals - ordinal numerals - many, much + its relatives - the forms of other - the phrasal quantifiers THE DEFINITE ARTICLE: the = from OE demonstrative pronoun sé - particular object; sth that is known; specific or definite reference; - C in sg.; C in pl.; U; the definite object; - we know exactly from the context; - unique things - political parties; the whole family; nouns of nationalities; - in proverbs - ordinal numerals; superlative degree – adj.; substantivized adj. - with some places, even if we don´t know exactly which - with: same, very, right, wrong; the weather; - some, many, none, most + preposition of; - abstract Ns modified by an attribute in post-position THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE: a / an = from OE numeral án (one) - meaning “one“: Ns denoting time, measure, weight, numerals - people or things in general - all the representatives of the class = “every“ - Ns introduced for the 1st time - CNs - object belonging to a class = “some, any“ - with jobs, Ns of nationalities; some illnesses; - proper Ns (member of family; literature, art) - Ns: period, population, distance, height, salary + OF constr. - after “there is“, “what a ...“, “such a ...“ - personal names modified by “certain“ THE ZERO ARTICLE = shows that Ns are used in a general sense - with pl CNs in general statements - abstract Ns; UNs of material - some illnesses; illnesses in -s - activities + sport games - in general: names of periods of a year, months, days, holidays - languages; names of subjects; names of food; - names of persons; forms of addressing people; titles + names; - Ns expressing relationship - in certain prepositional phrases THE USE OF ARTICLES No article: Articles: I like spring. It happened in the spring of 1968. It was spring. It was a cold spring. Day is meant for work, He won´t forget the day when... night for sleep. The night was warm. to be in prison (= prisoner) to be in the prison (= building) to leave school/at school (study) to leave the school; a good school Is dinner ready? The dinner we had today was ... speak French use the French language at work Dickens, the great novelist, ... It´s a Dickens novel. /a Picasso THE USE OF ARTICLES NO ARTICLE: THE DEFINITE ARTICLE: Africa, Asia, Europe the Antarctica, the Continent (Europe) England, Germany the UK, the Vatican, the Ukraine the Pacific (Ocean), the Black Sea, the Nile Lake Ontario, Lake Geneva the Ontario (no: lake) Mount Everest, Mont Blanc, the Matterhorn, the Jungfrau, Elbrus, Snowdon, Ben Nevis the Alps, the Himalayas, Malta, Sicily, Madagaskar the Isle of Capri, the Isle of Man groups of islands: the Bahamas, the Azores, the Canaries the Gobi (Desert), the Sahara London / Westminster Bridge the Golden Gate Br., the Tower Br. PRONOUNS point out objects / qualities without naming them 1) PERSONAL: = refer to the person speaking, spoken to, spoken about Gram. categories of P, N, C, G – 3rd sg. Common case is replaced by: - subjective case - objective case 2) POSSESSIVE: = refer to parts of the body and personal belongings Gram. categories: P, N, G 2 forms: - the dependent / attribute form (possessive determiners) - the independent / the nominal form SPECIFIC PRONOUNS 3) DEMONSTRATIVE: express the number contrast = point at what is nearer or farther in time and space Such = of this/that kind; such as = for example Same = always with “the“ 4) REFLEXIVE: indicate - action expressed by V passes back to S Gram. categories: P, N, G – 3rd sg. - as direct or indirect O - after a preposition; after “by“ meaning alone; - as part of the predicative of the V to be - in fixed phrases - to emphasize sth. = used with reflexive Vs 5) SPECIFIC INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS = form questions; always precede the V Who = 3 case-forms, used only for persons Subjective; Objective; Genitive/Possessive (determiner); What = no case-forms; used: for things for an activity to ask for a person´s profession, character, etc. in idiomatic expressions Which = used for things and persons; sg. or pl; subject or object; = implies choice among a certain number of things often followed by an of-phrase Compound interrogatives: = used for emphasis 6) SPECIFIC RELATIVE PRONOUNS point out back to a N or pron. mentioned before = antecedent Forms : personal: subject: who; object: whom; possessive: whose; non-pers: subj: which, that; obj: which, that; poss: whose That =for persons/things in restrictive relative clauses - can sometimes be left out of a sentence - cannot be preceded by a preposition - after the superlative; after most indefinite pronouns; - after opening phrases; antecedent = both person +thing What is used when an antecedent is not expressed Compound relative pronouns Relative as = always after such + after the same (also: that) 7) SPECIFIC RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS = express mutual action or relation = the subject = always in pl. Each other implies only two One another = two or more persons The common case The genitive case INDEFINITE: UNIVERSAL PRONOUNS ALL: persons / things; in sg. / pl.; expresses unity; - as a pronoun meaning: everything; - as an adjective meaning: the whole of; - in some expressions EACH: 2 or more than 2 persons/things separately - a limited number; after of and at the end - as a pronoun + as a determiner EVERY: more than 2 persons/things meaning: altogether; - unlimited number; after: nearly, not; only as a determiner - in idiomatic expressions BOTH: with pl N and pl V - as pronoun; as adjective; adverbially; INDEFINITE: PARTITIVE PRONOUNS SOME = determiner or nominal function; CNs + UNs; compounds - indefinite quant./nr; contrast; particular but unidentified - affirm. sent.; interrogative = positive reply; before numerals ANY = it doesn´t matter who, which, what; CNs+UNs; compounds - in: interrog.; negative; indirect quest.; condit. clauses; adverbially NO = determiner function; “not any, not a“; CNs + UNs; Nobody, no one, nothing =nominal f., sg V; replaced by any-; NONE = nominal function; sg+ pl; of-constructions THE OTHER /+sg N= the second of two ANOTHER = an additional one; a different one; THE OTHERS; THE OTHER + pl N = remaining ones; OTHERS; OTHER + pl N = different, additional, remaining ones; EITHER=1/the other of 2;both; NEITHER=not this, not the other INDEFINITE: QUANTIFYING PRONOUNS MANY, FEW = pl., used with CNs MUCH, LITTLE = sg., used with UNs In affirmative s.: a lot of, lots of, plenty of, a good deal of, MANY, MUCH: in interrog. + negative; MUCH = also adverbially FEW, LITTLE = negative meaning; A FEW, A LITTLE = positive SEVERAL: in pl.; determiner+nominal f. with of-construction ENOUGH: with CNs + UNs; determiner or nominal function; ONE: - numerical - replacive = a word-substitute (not with UNs) - indefinite = “people in general“ - after WHICH; ADJECTIVES / MODIFIERS limit or qualify words by describing them According to morphologic characteristics: 1) GRADABLE the positive the comparative the superlative Two types of comparison: synthetic and analytical 2) NON-GRADABLE IRREGULAR FORMS OF ADJECTIVES Spelling rules ADJECTIVES do not change in gender, number, case According to their meaning: QUALITATIVE /descriptive: size, shape, colour, m. + ph. qualities RELATIVE = to materials, place, time, action SUBSTANTIVIZED ADJECTIVES: wholly or partially MORPHOLOGICAL COMPOSITION OF ADJECTIVES: primary / simple secondary: - derived /derivative - converted compound Pre-modifiers x post-modifiers ADVERBS express some circumstances that attend an action, state, or point out some characteristic features of an action or a quality - answer questions: HOW? WHEN? WHERE? HOW OFTEN? TO WHAT EXTENT? IN WHAT ORDER? - can modify: Vs, adj. , indefinite pron., other adv., Ns, whole sentences; The modifying adverb is usually an INTENSIFIER According to their structure: simple derivative compound composite Adverbial phrases GRADABILITY OF ADVERBS GRADABLE: synthetic or analytical Irregular forms of comparison NON-GRADABLE According to their meaning: adverbs of MANNER adverbs of PLACE and DIRECTION adverbs of TIME adverbs of FREQUENCY adverbs of DEGREE, MEASURE and QUANTITY 2 forms of adverbs The same forms of adverbs and adjectives CONSTRUCTIONS WITH COMPARISON POSITION OF ADVERBS IN A SENTENCE of manner: of degrees: of place and directions: of time: of frequency: VERBS = word class / clause element Grammatical categories of Vs: tense, aspect, voice, mood A sentence: - a single verb = the finite verb phrase (VP) is simple: - a cluster of Vs = the VP is complex: Within a complex VP = up to 4 auxiliaries in front of the main V. 4 basic types of the complex finite VP: modal perfective progressive passive VERBS - according to the function within a VP = 3 classes of Vs: primary auxiliary Vs modal auxiliary Vs lexical (main, full) Vs - according to the finiteness: finite V forms non-finite V forms - according to morphological forms: regular Vs irregular Vs VERBS Regular Vs = 4 morphological forms: the base form (no inflections) = 4 functions the -ed form (past form + -ed participle form) = 3 functions the -s form -ing form Irregular Vs = either 5 forms or 3 forms - classified into: 3 forms alike 3 forms different past tense equals -ed participle V base equals -ed participle V base equals the past tense PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS = assist the main V to express gram. contrasts (in P, N, T) = a separate class TO BE = unique, 8 forms; uncontracted x contracted negative forms 2 functions: 1. as an aspect auxiliary for the progressive 2. as a passive auxiliary Lexical V = when combined with Adj., Adv., Pron., Ns Forms: present; past; present perfect; past perfect; future; future perfect; progressive present; progressive past; PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS TO HAVE = base, -s, past, -ing, -ed; contracted x uncontr. negative forms Lexical V = to possess; Forms: present; past; present perfect; past perfect; future; future perfect; HAVE x HAVE GOT = often interchangeable In BrE: have got = perfect form of “get“ + have got = to possess; In BrE questions - by inversion, in AmE - by operators When a stative V = no progressive form When a dynamic V = meaning: eat, drink, enjoy, take, experience HAVE + determiner + noun = to perform activity PRIMARY AUXILIARY VERBS TO DO = present; -s; past; contracted x uncontracted negative forms; Lexical V = to perform; to work at or be engaged in sth. Forms: -ing; -ed; ... Auxiliary V: - negated imperative - in questions - in tag questions - in emphatic or persuasive constructions - in inversion caused by introductory words (negative adverbs: hardly, seldom) MODALS = the speaker´s attitude toward the action or state indicated by the infinitive I CAN / COULD (periphrastic form: to be able to) CAN = ability, capability; CANNOT/CAN´T = inability, incapability CAN expresses: physical and mental abilities asking and giving permission with Vs with perception possibility CAN´T/COULD/COULD NOT + perfect inf.= ref. to the past CAN/CAN´T + passive infinitive MODALS - defective, not inflected; followed by bare infinitive; I MAY / MIGHT (periphrastic = to be allowed to) permission in questions MAY is more formal than CAN MIGHT in more polite requests MUSTN´T stronger prohibition than MAY NOT - possibility (= it is possible) MAY + present infinitive = about present or future happenings MAY/MIGHT + perfect infinitive = guess about past happening MIGHT expresses reproach MIGHT + perfect infinitive = action was not carried out in the past MAY as a subjunctive auxiliary (expresses wish) MODALS - cannot form imperative; do not have the infinitive form; I MUST (to have to) = to be obliged to; to be compelled to inescapable obligation, duty or necessity an absence of obligation by NEED NOT or DON´T HAVE TO MUSTN´T is a strong way of forbidding to do sth. MUST, HAVE TO, HAVE GOT TO = interchangeable obligation comes from the speaker stronger obligation for other persons MUST in notices, documents, commands MUST in pressing invitation and emphatic advice MUST + present inf. = deduction refers to the present MUST + perfect inf. = deduction about the past MODALS - negative and interrogative forms without the auxiliary SHALL expresses: volition (mostly for 1st sg.) in questions = obligation or suggestion insistence, threat in legal documents- in 2nd, 3rd person SHOULD in reported speech; in offers, suggestions, requests; escapable obligation, duty probability; after if and in case = possibility recommendations from an outside authority OUGHT TO = more objective force, talk about laws, duties SHOULD/OUGHT TO + perf. inf.= action wasn´t carried out MODAL AUXILIARY VERBS WILL expresses: prediction about the future; about the present; giving orders; habitual predictive meaning in conditional; willingness to do sth.; intention to make promises or threats to make requests or to give orders WILL+perfect inf.= logical deduction about the past WOULD = past form, in reported speech - about past habits + characteristic behaviour (no with state V) WOULD as conditional WOULD = more polite request than WILL - after I wish / If only I ... expresses willingness MARGINAL MODALS / SEMI-MODALS NEED = in the negative; Yes/No questions - after negative adverbs (hardly, seldom, rarely) - in formal style, expressing doubts - in informal use = ordinary (lexical) V form NEEDN´T + perfect inf.= sb did it but it was not necessary DARE: in questions + negatives or with bare infinitive or a full V - in informal style; the negative DAREN´T: YOU DARE! or: DON´T YOU DARE! = to discourage people I DARE SAY = probably USED TO = past habit = only in simple past; also with state V USED NOT or USEDN´T = in the negative; in questions; GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF VOICE ACTIVE VOICE The clause with transitive Vs contains: 3 gram. elements: S+V+O; 3 semantic units: A+P (A)+G SUBJECT = AGENT if V is in the active voice; OBJECT = GOAL If WO - changed = both gram. + semantic roles of Ns change PASSIVE VOICE = the SUBJECT - not interpreted as the AGENT AGENT (NP) is preceded by the preposition by. AGENT (unknown, unimportant) = unexpressed The emphasis = on the action, not on people who perform it. Sth that the AGENT used to perform the action = preposition with: After ditransitive Vs either OBJECT = SUBJECT of a passive clause. THE FORMS OF THE PASSIVE VOICE = to be + -ed participle present simple: John is helped by Mary. present progressive present perfect simple past past progressive past perfect simple future future perfect present infinitive perfect infinitive - ing form perfect –ing form GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF ASPECT reflects the way in which the verb action is “regarded“ or „experienced“ with respect to time; - is closely connected in meaning with tense 2 types of aspectual contrast: 1) THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT 2) THE PROGRESSIVE (CONTINUOUS) ASPECT 1 THE PERFECTIVE ASPECT is associated with time orientation + various time indicators (already, since, for, so far, lately, recently, up to now, how long, ever,...) 1.1 THE PRESENT PERFECT = have + -ed participle = “past happening related to present time“ past events with results in the present time indefinite events in a period leading up to the present time habit in a period leading up to the present time state leading up to the present time 1.2 THE PAST PERFECT = had + -ed participle = “past in the past“ = conjunctions: after, when show which event took place earlier describing one event following another in the past event in -when clause = completed before event in PS started in reported speech after past Vs to narrate events looking back from a point in the past to express an unrealized hope, wish 1.3 THE FUTURE PERFECT = (will + perfect infinitive) = at a certain time in the future sth will be completed / achieved (often used with by + time reference) THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT = to be + ing form = refers to activity in progress, and therefore suggests that: a) the activity is temporary (i.e. of limited duration) b) it need not be complete 2.1 PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (am/is/are + -ing) = actions in progress at the moment of speaking (now, just) = temporary situation, activity is taking place in the present time and will continue for a limited period = future reference with Vs of motion (arrive, come, go, leave, fly) = activities planned for the future = repeated actions – unexpectedly/annoyingly (always, constantly) THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT 2.2 PAST PROGRESSIVE = was/were + -ing = an action was in progress at a specified time in the past = started bef. event in PS,= in progress when event in PS occured = two parallel actions were in progress at the same time (while) = progress with adverbials beginning with all (all morning, all day) = repeated actions = the background for a narrative in the past THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT 2.3 PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE = has/have been +ing = an activity taking place in the recent period up to the present = started in P, continues up to Pr and possibly in the F (since, for) 2.4 PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE = had been + -ing - used to describe an activity looking back from the past THE PROGRESSIVE ASPECT 2.5 FUTURE PROGRESSIVE = shall/will be + -ing = an activity going on at a particular time or over a particular period in the future (we mention the future time) = future activity is the result of a previous decision (arrangement) = planned activities in the future = asking (politely) about people´s plans 2.6 FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE = shall/will + have been + -ing = activity leading up to time in the future (usually - the particular point in the future (on Saturday, next year) and the period of time until this point (for a year, for 20 minutes) GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF MOOD indicates the factual, nonfactual, or counterfactual status of prediction THE INDICATIVE/DECLARATIVE = facts; relatively confident THE IMPERATIVE MOOD = commands, instructions 2 sg/pl (no distinction)= base of V; 1+3 sg/pl = periphrastically THE SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD (replaced by other constructions) 1) The Mandative S. = lack of regular concord btw S + FV a) in a subordinate that-clause after Vs (in the main clause): advise, ask, beg, decide, demand, desire, insist, intend, order b) after adjectives (anxious, determined) with a personal S or (essential, important, urgent, vital)+ impersonal it-constr. c) after Ns (demand, intention, order, request, suggestion) 2) The Formulaic S. in certain set expressions 3) The Were-S. = hypothetical; conditional/wish clauses GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY OF TENSE Present: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive Past: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive Expressing future: simple, progressive, perfect, perfect progressive NON-FINITE VERB FORMS = after Vs in VP, after Ns, Adj, in non-finite subordinate clauses 1) THE INFINITIVE present infinitive active: present infinitive passive: present progressive infinitive active: perfect / past infinitive active: perfect / past infinitive passive: perfect / past progressive infinitive active: The bare infinitive is used after: modals; let; make; had better; would rather; Vs of perception; The to-infinitive is used after: some lexical Vs; V to be + adj.; some Vs followed by an O; indicating purpose NON-FINITE VERB FORMS 2) THE ING-FORM -ing participles in progr. aspect or functioning as participial adj. gerunds = can take place of N or V - in statements = U; as a count = after determiners+´s genitive Forms: present active; present passive; past active; past passive Use: after most Vs of liking and disliking; some lexical Vs; phrasal Vs; prepositions including adj. + preposition phrases; 3) THE –ed FORM = the past form and the –ed participle form to form the passive; to express perfective aspect (have/had + -ed); to begin a subordinate clause;