Transcript Law of Contrariness "Our chief want in life is somebody who shall

Law of Contrariness
"Our chief want in life is somebody who shall
make us do what we can. Having found
them, we shall then hate them for it."
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Tyler’s Four Questions
Ralph Tyler (1971) concluded that when
developing curriculum, planning instruction,
and assessing learning, there are four
primary questions:
(1) What is the purpose of the lesson?
(2) What experiences are necessary to achieve the
purpose?
(3) How do you organize the experiences into meaningful
learning?
(4) What evidence is available to determine if you
accomplished the purpose?
What is the Target?
“Begin With the End in Mind”
(Covey)
Selected Principles of Learning:
Constructivism
Piagetian Theory—
Summarized
(Jean Piaget)
Humans are “Sensing” Beings
Humans perceive
“stimuli” (information)
from the environment
through their five
senses
• Seeing (visual)
• Hearing (auditory)
• Touching (tactile;
kinesthetic)
• Smelling
• Tasting
Perceptions
Perceptions are
formed as one
“experiences”
the world.
Memory
One’s ability to perceive new information
is essential to memory.
Concepts
. . . And, without
memory or the ability to
remember one cannot
form concepts, e.g.,
“mental pictures” about
how things work.
“Concept Formations” = Cognitive
Schemata
Cognitive Schemata are bundles
or “chunks” of knowledge and
understanding into which new
data (stimuli) are “integrated” as
they are received from the
environment (i.e., when new
experiences occur).
 Cognitive “Hooks” or “Scaffolds”
***Note: Schemata is plural and Schema
is singular
Cognitive schemata are essential for
“permanent learning” to occur, and for
higher order learning and thinking to take
place.
Perception >>>> Memory >>>> Concept Formation
(sensing)
(encoding)
(learning)
Concept formation involves two
cognitive processes
• Accommodation
• Assimilation
Accommodation
As new environmental stimuli are
received, pre-existing cognitive
schemata are changed or adapted to
“accommodate” the stimuli
Assimilation
As new environmental stimuli are
received, the stimuli are changed or
“adapted” to “fit” pre-existing
cognitive schemata
Equilibrium
A cognitive balance between
accommodation and assimilation
See Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model
(Handout)
• When are perceptions
formed?
• When is accommodation
and assimilation
occurring?
• When is “transfer
of learning” occurring?
Other Selected Principles of
Learning
Carroll’s Five Variables
for Learning
The Carroll model: A 25-year retrospective and
prospective view (Carroll, 1989).
Aptitude
A student’s aptitude determines the amount of time
one needs to learn a given task, unit of instruction,
or curriculum to an acceptable criterion of mastery
under optimal conditions of instruction and student
motivation.
Opportunity to Learn
The amount of time
allowed for learning,
for example, by a
school schedule, a
course, or a program.
Perseverance
The time and effort that a student is
willing to spend on the learning; in this
sense, it becomes an operational
definition of motivation for learning.
Quality of Instruction
The learners must be clearly told what they are
to learn (i.e., measurable instructional
objectives).
They must be put into adequate contact with
learning materials, and the steps in learning
must be carefully planned and ordered.
Quality of Instruction
(cont’d)
If these factors are less than optimal,
the time needed for learning is
increased, and the quality of learning
may be less than optimal.
Ability to Understand
Instruction
This includes language
comprehension as well as
the learners’ ability to
figure out for themselves
what the learning task is
and how to go about
learning it.
THE POPHAM MODEL: Determining
Educational Needs…
Desired
Status of
Learners
--
Current
Status of
Learners
An
= Educational
Need
Measurable Instructional Objectives that are
stated in Behavioral Terms
• What the student
will be able to do as
a result of the
instruction
(TSWBAT)?
• More directly, what
the student will be
able to do on Friday
that they could not
do on Monday?
Mager’s Rules for Writing
Measurable Instructional
Objectives
• 1) Identify and Name the Student Behavior Sought
• 2) Define any Important Conditions Under Which
the Behavior is to Occur
• 3) Define a Level of Acceptable Performance
• Specify the BEHAVIOR, the CONDITION, and the
DEGREE of acceptable performance when writing the
objective.
ACTION VERBS
• Use words that describe the
student behavior that is to be
demonstrated (observed).
• The Action Verb should represent
one of the six levels of the
Cognitive Domain.
BLOOM’S TAXONOMY: A
VOCABULARY FOR WRITING
OBJECTIVES
• Cognitive Domain
•
•
•
•
•
•
Knowledge
Comprehension
Application
Analysis
Synthesis
Evaluation
EXAMPLES OF ACTION
VERB USE
• VAGUE
The student will be
able to . . .
do
know
understand . . .
• BETTER
The student will be
able to . . .
list
compare
demonstrate
summarize
prepare
critique . . .
Ralph W. Tyler’s Legacy: The
Goal-Attainment Model
Goal-Sources
Goal-Screens
• Student
• Philosophy of
Education
• Society
• Subject Matter
• Psychology of
Learning