Transcript UNIX Operating System - Computing Sciences

Instructor: Robert D’Andrea
 Week Ten 2016
 Franklin University ITEC400

Agenda
Administrative Issues
Link of the Week
This Week’s Expected Outcomes
Points of interest
Moving around in UNIX
Break-Out Problems
Upcoming Deadlines
Hands-on Information
Lab Assistance, Questions, and Answers
Announcements
Announcements
Final exam April 11 through 16, 2016.
Link of the week
Encoding
www.fileformat.info/info/unicode/utf8.htm
Unicode now replaces ASCII, ISO 8859 and EUC.
It enables users to handle not only practically any script
and language used on the planet, it also supports a
comprehensive set of mathematical and technical
symbols to simplify scientific information exchange.
With UTF-8 encoding, Unicode can be used in a
convenient and backwards compatible way in
environments that were designed around ASCII, like
UNIX. UTF-8 is the way in which Unicode is used
under UNIX, Linux, and other systems.
This Week’s Expected Outcomes
Upon successful completion of this
module, the student will be able to:
Manipulate user accounts.
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Describe how cron is used to invoke repetitive
processes.
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Manipulate process structure including: A.
fork/execute, B. Initialization process, C.
Background/foreground, D. PS tool.
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Explain basic UNIX and Linux security issues.

Describe disk and file system structure.

Use backup and restore archival operations on a
system.
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Establish network services.
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Investigate the structure of the LDAP directory using
LDAP commands.
UNIX Operating System
“Initializing” or “booting” the machine
The startup process of a computing system is the
installation of software. Many pieces of the software
are configured into subsystems and are
interdependent upon each other.
The boot up procedure utilized by Linux, HPUX UNIX and Solaris is based on the UNIX System
V procedure. Red Hat Enterprise Linux 6.0 boot up
procedure is based on the Upstart procedure.
UNIX Operating System
Steps involved in the boot procedure
CPU mode is set to RESET
CPU is pre-programmed to begin
execution at hex address 0Xfffffff0.
Address 0Xfffffff0 is mapped to ROM
(Read Only Memory). This ROM (BIOS
) address contains a set of routines that
are burnt on the chip
UNIX Operating System
“Initializing” or “booting” the machine
The BIOS code is where the hardware meets
software for the first time, and where all the boot
magic begins. The BIOS code is inside a chip on the
motherboard of your PC, usually stored on what is
called an EEPROM. The BIOS is the lowest level of
software that interfaces with the hardware as a whole,
and is the interface by means of which the bootloader
and operating system kernel can communicate with
and control the hardware. Through standardized calls
to the BIOS the operating system can trigger the
BIOS to read and write to the disk and interface with
other hardware components.
UNIX Operating System
“Initializing” or “booting” the machine
When your computer is powered on, the BIOS
begins its work as part of the POST (Power-On Self
Test) process. After that, it bridges all the various
parts of your PC together, and interfaces between
them as required, setting up the various system
components like the VGA, display screen, initializing
the memory banks, and giving access to the hardware
disks connected to your system. The BIOS on newer
motherboards recognizes and identifies USB devices,
and external drives and USB mice.
UNIX Operating System
“Initializing” or “booting” the machine
The I/O routines on the BIOS continue the
boot process by reading Track 0, Sector 1 of
the hard disk. This is the location of the Master
Boot Record (MBR). The MBR is the first and
most important component on the software
side of things in the boot procedure on a
BIOS-based machines. Every hard disk
contains a MBR, and it contains many other
important pieces of information.
UNIX Operating System
“Initializing” or “booting” the machine
The size of the MBR is 512 bytes. The
MBR contains the disk partition tables, and
executable code which is the first part of the
boot loader. The MBR is independent of the
kernel.
UNIX Operating System
MBR
The information about how a hard disk
has been partitioned is stored in its first sector
(that is, the first sector of the first track on the
first disk surface). The first sector is the master
boot record (MBR) of the disk; this is the
sector that the BIOS reads in and starts when
the machine is first booted.
UNIX Operating System
The master boot record contains a small
program that reads the partition table, checks
which partition is active (that is, marked
bootable), and reads the first sector of that
partition, the partition's boot sector (the MBR is
also a boot sector, but it has a special status and
therefore a special name). This boot sector
contains another small program that reads the
first part of the operating system stored on that
partition (assuming it is bootable), and then
starts it.
UNIX Operating System
UNIX Operating System
The second and important bit of code of
the MBR is known as the “bootstrap code”.
The first 440 bytes of these 512 bytes can
contain literally anything. The BIOS will load
it and execute its contents as-is, kicking off the
bootloader procedure. The bootstrap is
incredibly small. It makes up approximately
0.3% of the capacity of a dated MiB floppy
disk.
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Master Boot Record (MBR)
Master Boot Record
UNIX Operating System
Considering how small the bootstrap code
section is, the only useful purpose it can really
serve is to look up another file from the disk
and load it to perform the actual boot process.
In reality, the bootstrap code is often referred
to as a “stage one bootloader”. Depending on
the operating system, the exact place the
bootstrap code searches for the “stage two
bootloader” can change, but on Windows the
stage one bootloader will search the partition
table of the MBR for a partition marked as
“active” which is MBR speak for “bootable,”
UNIX Operating System
indicating that the start of the partition
contains the next portion of the boot code in its
starting sectors. On a correctly created MBR
disk, only one partition can be marked as
active at a time.
So the job of the bootstrap code segment
in the MBR is fairly simple: look up the active
partition from the partition table, and load that
code into the memory for execution by the
CPU as the next link in the boot chain.
UNIX Operating System
Depending on the OS you are loading, it
might actually look up a hard coded partition
instead of the active partition and the offset of
the boot code within the partition boot sector
might change, but the basic concept remains
the same. For legacy systems, the MBR almost
always loads the first sector of the active
partition, meaning another 512 bytes.
UNIX Operating System
The boot loader is responsible for loading
the kernel into memory. Boot loaders are
independent of the operating system and are
executable code found inside the MBR. The
boot loader must share the 512 bytes with the
partition table.
UNIX Operating System
“Initializing” or “booting” the machine
The LILO is independent of specific file
system, and can boot an operating system from
floppy disks and hard drives. There are sixteen
different images that can be selected at boot
time. LILO can be placed either in the master
boot record (MBR) or the boot sector partition.
In the latter case, something else like a reference
must be placed in the MBR to load LILO.
UNIX Operating System
“Initializing” or “booting” the machine
UNIX Operating System
Define: Linux initrd
The previous slide displayed how the boot
process is broken up into several major
components, each of which is an independent
subsystem with many different options and
variations. The implementation of each
component can differ considerably depending
on your hardware and operating system, but
the rules they follow and the process by which
they work from are always the same.
UNIX Operating System
Define: Linux initrd
The /dev/initrd file is a read-only block
device. The /dev/initrd is a RAM disk device that
is loaded by the boot loader into memory before
the kernel is started. The kernel utilizes this block
device for a two phased system boot-up.
During the first phase, the kernel starts up
and mounts an initial root filesystem from the
contents of the /dev/initrd (RAM disk is
initialized by the boot loader).
The second phase, additional drivers or other
module information are loaded from the initial
root device as contents. After loading all modules,
a new root filesystem (/etc/fstab) is mounted from
a different device.
UNIX Operating System
UNIX Operating System
What is a Block Device?
Block device is a device you can read blocks
of information. Some block devices are CDROM,
hard disk, and floppy disks.
The following dd statement reads one 512 byte
record.
dd if=/dev/sda1 of=/dev/null count=1
Command:
ls –l /dev/initrd
brw-rw---- 1 root disk
1, 250 Jun 24 2004
initrd
brw-rw---- 1 root
disk
1, 10 Sep 8 2011ram10
UNIX Operating System
Character Device
Character special files or character devices
relate to devices through which the system
transmits data one character at a time. These
device nodes often serve for stream
communication with devices such as mice,
keyboards, virtual terminals, and serial
modems, and usually do not support random
access to data.
UNIX Operating System
Character Device
In most implementations, character
devices use un-buffered input and output
routines. The system reads each character from
the device immediately or writes each
character to the device immediately.
crw------- 1 root root 5, 1 Sep 8 2011
console
crw--w---- 1 root tty
4, 44 Sep 8 2011
tty44
UNIX Operating System
Role of the kernel
Once the drivers have been loaded,
execution is turned over to the kernel.
The kernel then executes a series of steps.
- Determines memory size
- Initializes Data Structure
- Mount root partition
- Hardware Configuration
UNIX Operating System
Role of the kernel
Kernel configures information based
on probing the system bus, and querying
drivers for information. Devices that are
missing drivers are considered disabled.
- Hand crafted/Spontaneous
processes.
UNIX Operating System
Linux Kernel Data Structure (task_struct)
The task_struct data structure contains the following
fields:
- Process state
running
returning from system call
processing an interrupt routine
processing a system call
ready
waiting
- Processes priority
- Clock ticks (10ms intervals) which the process can
continue executing without being forced
rescheduling.
- Error number of the last faulting system call
UNIX Operating System
Describe a processes:
Original parent, parent, youngest child, younger sibling,
and finally older sibling.
Process ID
Timing information; for example, the amount of time
the process has spent in user mode.
UNIX Operating System
Linux Kernel
The Linux kernel process table is a
data structure that describes all processes
that currently exist.
The process table is implemented as an array
of pointers to task structures.
The kernel process table is limited in
size to 512 entries and has its own block size.
All Linux blocks are currently 1024 bytes.
UNIX Operating System
Role of the init process
The kernel starts a few
spontaneous/handcrafted processes in user
space. The origin of the init process is from
the kernel and not the fork and execute
procedure. The init process has a Process ID
(PID) of one (1) and a Parent Process ID of
zero (0).
root
1
0 0 2014 ?
00:03:19 /sbin/init
UNIX Operating System
Role of the init process
The init process is the ultimate parent in
the running system and plays an important
role in the startup process. All future
processes on the system are descendants of
the init process.
UNIX Operating System
Role of the init process
Once the system processes are created, then
the kernels work is basically completed.
The init process performs the following tasks:
Executions the /etc/rc.d/rc.sysinit script
Sets the system clock
Activates the paging process
Starts the RAID devices
Check and mounts other file systems
Executes the /etc/inittab script
Executions of run commands
Switch to multi user mode
UNIX Operating System
init process
After the run commands (rc) have executed, the system is
fully operational.
It looks for the file /etc/inittab to see if there is an entry of
the type initdefault. The initdefault entry determines the initial
run level of the system.
Display: /etc/inittab file
init login process
1. Init process spawns the getty or minigetty
process.
2. The getty process invokes the login process. After the
user name has been entered, it is passed to the login
process.
UNIX Operating System
init process
3. The login process prompts the user for a user
password, and verifies it. If authentication is
successful, the user’s shell is created.
Otherwise, a failure causes an error message, ends
and then init process will respawn getty or minigetty.
4. The user’s preferred shell will be invoked
creating a session.
5. Eventually, the user will logout.
UNIX Operating System
The /etc/inittab file on the cs.franklin.edu
machine has been updated with Red Hat 6.0.
This new release affects Lab Assignment 9-1
because information has been removed from the
/etc/inittab file. Currently, the new release of the
/etc/inittab file is accessed during boot up for
the default run level (id:3:initdefault).
Otherwise, system initialization, individual run
levels, and the Ctrl-Alt_Delete feature are
handled by different files.
UNIX Operating System
UNIX Operating System
The previous slide displays how the boot process is broken up
into several major components, each of which is an independent
subsystem with many different options and variations. The
implementation of each component can differ considerably
depending on your hardware and operating system, but the rules
they follow and the process by which they work are always the
same.
UNIX Operating System
It makes no difference what type computer you
have or operating system, standard desktop PCs or
laptops, all power on and start up using one of two
ways:
1. The traditional BIOS-MBR
2. UEFI-GRT method.
2.1 Windows
2.2 Linux
2.3 Mac OS-X
2.4 PCs, laptops, and tables
UNIX Operating System
In UNIX, a process is a name given to a program being
executed by the operating system.
In Linux, that same program is referred to as a task or
process. Linux considers both names as the same.
A process consist of:
- Program code, data, and stack
- Open files (stdin, stdout, stderr)
- System data structures
- Environment (terminal type, user login directory,
$HOME)
A Linux system will share code and system libraries
among processes so that memory can be conserved and only
keep one copy of the code is in memory at a time.
UNIX Operating System
Process
Each Linux process is allocated a unique
process identifier (PID). The range of PIDs is
usually between 2 and 32,768.
A process can be terminated several ways:
- Foreground process by typing Ctl-C
- Background process with PID=n and
typing
kill [option] -n
UNIX Operating System
Process
Processes go through various process
states during their existence. These transitory
states are managed by the operating system
(OS). The specifics of these process states vary
from one OS to another, as well as the state
names.
UNIX Operating System
Process
Process states:
1. Created (fork and exec)
2. Waiting (process scheduler - load from
secondary storage to main memory)
3. Running (after a process is assigned a
processor by a short –term scheduler, context
switch is performed)
4. Blocked (waiting for resources - user input or
secondary storage input. Then process is
moved back to “waiting”state)
5. Terminated (finished execution, waits to be
removed from main memory)
UNIX Operating System
Process Summary
In UNIX-like operating systems, the kernel is
invoked when a process issues a system call.
All processes have owners.
Processes transition through various states.
When an original process (parent) creates or
spawns another processes (child), it inherits
the file access and execution privileges
belonging to the parent (basic frame work of
the parent).
UNIX Operating System
UNIX Operating System
UNIX Operating System
UNIX Operating System
What is a thread?
The amount of work performed by a
process or task.
- A single threaded process is a process only
performs one task.
- A multi-threaded process is a process that
performs multiple tasks concurrently
without incurring additional overhead
needed to create a new process.
UNIX Operating System
Shutdown command
One commonly issued form of this
command is shutdown -h now, which will shut
down a system immediately. Another one is
shutdown -r now to reboot. Another command
format allows the user to specify an exact time
or a delay before shutdown: shutdown -h 20:00
will turn the computer off at 8:00 PM, and
shutdown -r -t 60 will automatically reboot the
machine within 60 seconds (one minute) of
issuing the command.
UNIX Operating System
Shutdown command
The complete syntax of the Linux version of the
command is:
usage: shutdown [-akrhfnc] [-t secs] time
[message]
-a use /etc/shutdown.allow
-k don't really shutdown, only warn
-r reboot after shutdown
-h halt after shutdown
-f do a 'fast' reboot (skip fsck)
-F force fsck on reboot
-n do not go through "init" but go down real
fast
-c cancel a running shutdown
-t secs delay between warning and kill signal
UNIX Operating System
Kill Command
Caveat:
The command kill sends the specified
signal to the specified process or process
group. As a precaution, avoid
indiscriminate use of the kill command
on jobs involving text editors, databases
programs, mail programs, or any other
program that has a large amount of user
interaction. The kill command terminates
a job without saving any of the user input
or program results.
UNIX Operating System
/etc/password File
Location: /etc/passwd
Field separators: Colon (:)
File format:
Username:Password:UID:GID:UserID:Home
directory:Command/shell
Example:
dandrear:x:1020:1021:dandrear
user:/export/home/dandrear:/bin/bash
Permissions on Einstein:
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root
1636 Aug 16
10:37 /etc/passwd
UNIX
Operating
System
/etc/Passwd File
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Username: It is used when user logs in. It
should be between 1 and 32 characters in
length.
Password: An x character indicates that
encrypted password is stored in /etc/shadow
file.
User ID (UID): Each user must be assigned a
user ID (UID). UID 0 (zero) is reserved for root
and UIDs 1-99 are reserved for other
predefined accounts. Further UID 100-999 are
reserved by system for administrative and
system accounts/groups.
Group ID (GID): The primary group ID (stored
in /etc/group file)
User ID Info: The comment field. It allow you
to add extra information about the users such as
user’s full name, phone number etc. This field
use by finger command.
UNIX Operating System
/etc/Passwd File
 Home directory: The absolute path to the
directory the user will be in when they log
in. If this directory does not exists then users
directory becomes /
 Command/shell: The absolute path of a
command or shell (/bin/bash). Typically, this
is a shell. Please not it does not have to be a
shell.
UNIX Operating System
/etc/shadow File
Location: /etc/shadow
Field separators: Colon (:)
File format:
username:passwd:lastpasswdch:min:max:warn:inactive:expire:unused
Example:
dandrear:$1$dhBysgdhfteM9gd00:13064:0:99999:7:::
Permissions on Einstein:
-r-------- 1 root root
(Permission denied)
1107 Sep 5 15:24 /etc/shadow
UNIX
Operating
System
/etc/shadow File
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User name : It is your login name
Password: It your encrypted password. The
password should be minimum 6-8 characters
long including special characters/digits
Last password change (last changed): Days
since Jan 1, 1970 that password was last
changed
Minimum: The minimum number of days
required between password changes i.e. the
number of days left before the user is allowed
to change his/her password
Maximum: The maximum number of days the
password is valid (after that user is forced to
change his/her password)
Warn : The number of days before password is
to expire that user is warned that his/her
password must be changed
UNIX Operating System
/etc/shadow File
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Inactive : The number of days after
password expires that account is disabled
Expire : days since Jan 1, 1970 that account
is disabled i.e. an absolute date specifying
when the login may no longer be used
Unused field:
UNIX Operating System
/etc/group File
Location: /etc/group
Field separators: Colon (:)
File format:
Group name:Password:GID:User_list
Example:
faculty:x:410:
staff:x:430:
Permissions on Einstein:
-rw-r--r-- 1 root root
833 Aug 16
10:37 group
UNIX Operating System
/etc/group File
Group name: Name of the group.
Password: The group password would be
encrypted. If this field is empty, no password
is needed.
GID: The numerical group ID and/or unique
group identifier.
User_list: All the group member's user names,
separated by commas.
UNIX Operating System
UNIX Operating System
UNIX Operating System
Adding Users on a system
Performed in three ways:
1. Manually through the system interface
2. Adduser/deluser commands (demonstrate on
Knoppix software)
3. Using a GUI system administration tool
UNIX Operating System
Security Features
The Linux network daemon uses
xinetd to monitor all configured ports and
starts system resources usage only ondemand, since the daemons aren’t
running all the time. Security and
resource usage is the main objective.
UNIX Operating System
Chroot jail
Utilized by Linux and UNIX OS to create an
artificial root directory. Creating a temporary root
directory prevents a program from accessing or
modifying files outside the directory hierarchy
starting at its root. Chroot affects only the current
process and its child processes.
The files need to be placed in the jail directory
(such as /users) in directories that mimic their
placement in the root (/) file system. So you need to
copy all required files. For example, /usr/bin/rssh is
located on / file system. If your jail is located at
/users, then copy /usr/bin/rssh to /users/usr/bin/rssh.
UNIX Operating System
SELinux
Developed by the U.S. National Security Agency
(NSA), implements Mandatory Access Control
(MAC) in the Linux kernel. MAC enforces security
policies that limit what a user or program can do. It
defines a security policy that controls some or all
objects, such as files, devices, sockets, and ports, and
some subjects like processes. Utilizing SELinux, you
can grant a process only those permissions it needs to
be functional.
UNIX Operating System
TCP Wrapper
It is part of the client/server model, and
can be used with any daemon that is linked
against libwrap.a, and relies on the
/etc/hosts.allow and /etc/hosts.deny files are
the basis of a simple access control language.
This access control language defines rules that
selectively allow clients to access server
daemons on a local system based on the
client’s address and the daemon the client tries
to access.
UNIX Operating System
Security Features
The iptables utility builds and
manipulates network packet filtering
rules in the Linux kernel. You can use
iptables to create a firewall that protects a
system from outside intruders.
UNIX Operating System
Points of interest
Display the processes running on your
system. If you see cupsd, the CUPS daemon, is
running, so the system is using CUPS for
printing.
Moving Around in UNIX
sudo - Set user and do. Execute a single
command as another user (root is the
default).
lsof - List open files on the system.
Normally, it only lists files you (or
processes you own) have open; if run
as root, it lists all open files.
Moving Around in UNIX
ifconfig - Configure network interfaces
(e.g. ethernet ports, AirPort cards,
etc).
printenv - print out environment
whois - Internet user name directory
service
Break-out problems
1. simple_script &
2. What is a zombie process?
3. What files are updated on a Linux system when a
new user is added?
4. fork()
5. What information is stored in the /etc/passwd file?
6. What information is stored in the /etc/shadow file?
7. What information is stored in the /etc/group file?
8. What is a background process?
9. What is a foreground process?
10. What is an orphan process?
11. kernel
12. nice command
13. init process
Hands on information
Lab Assignment 9-1,Startup
/Shutdown due March 13, 2016
Lab Assignment 10-1, 10-2
Account/LDAP/Process due March
20, 2016
Open Source Assignment 13-1, due
April 5 (week 14) and April 12 (week
15)
After class assistance
 Questions
 Comments
 Concerns
I
am available after this Franklin Live
session to discuss any problems and/or
concerns regarding the lab assignments
Lab Assistance available by phone
and/or email