Transcript Dynamic Memory Allocation I

CS 105
“Tour of the Black Holes of Computing”
Synchronization Methods
Topics
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semaphores.ppt
Mutual-exclusion methods
Producer/consumer problem
Readers/writers problem
Mutual Exclusion
Need ways to enforce critical sections
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Prevent race conditions that cause errors
Requirements for mutual exclusion
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Safety: only one process/thread at a time inside CS
Progress: if nobody has access and somebody wants in,
somebody gets in
No starvation: if you want in, you will eventually get in
Desirable properties:
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Efficiency: can get into CS in relatively few instructions
Low load: waiting for CS doesn’t waste resources
Fairness: if you want in, nobody else gets in ahead of you
twice
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Additional Requirements
Synchronization is tricky to get right
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Failure to protect critical sections
Incorrect use of primitives
Deadlock
Programmer-friendliness is big plus
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Hardware Mutex Support
Test and Set
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Read word, set it nonzero, and set condition codes
All in one indivisible operation
Compare and Swap
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Read word, compare to register, store other register into
word
Again, indivisible
Generalization of Test & Set
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Example of Test and Set
enter_critical_region:
leal lock, %eax
.L1: tsl (%eax)
; Set lock NZ, set CC
jne .L1
; Loop if was already NZ
; We now have exclusive access
ret
leave_critical_region:
xor %eax, %eax
movl %eax, lock
ret
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Evaluating Test and Set
+ Very fast entry to unlocked region
+ Easy to implement
+ Guarantees safety & progress
- Wastes CPU when waiting (spin lock/busy wait)
- Doesn’t make it easy for other threads to run
- Extremely high memory (i.e., bus) traffic
- Prone to errors (e.g., forget to unlock)
- Prone to starvation
For these reasons, test & set is used only to implement
higher-level constructs.
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Semaphores
Higher-level construct, discussed previously
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Invented by Edsger Dijkstra
P(sem) or wait(sem) decrements and possibly waits
V(sem) or signal(sem) increments and lets somebody else in
Usually implemented by operating system
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Allows scheduler to run different thread while waiting
OS can guarantee fairness and no starvation
 Or can even enforce priority scheme
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More flexibility for user (e.g., can count things)
Still error-prone
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P’s and V’s must be matched
Single extra V blows mutual exclusion entirely (compare Test
& Set)
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Monitors
High-level mutual-exclusion construct
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Invented by C.A.R. “Tony” Hoare
Difficult or impossible to use incorrectly
Like Java/C++ class: combines data with functions needed
to manage it
Keys to monitor correctness
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Data is available only to functions within monitor
Specific functions (gatekeepers) control access
Only one process/thread allowed inside monitor at a time
Queues keep track of who is waiting for monitor
Turns out to be hard to do certain things with monitors
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Programmers wind up standing on heads or implementing
things like semaphores
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Problems in Synchronization
Many standard problems in concurrent programming
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Producer/consumer
Readers/writers
Dining philosophers
Drinking philosophers
Etc.
Standard problems capture common situations
Also give way to evaluate proposed synchronization
mechanisms
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The Producer/Consumer
Problem
Two processes communicate
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Producer generates things (e.g., messages) into a buffer
Consumer takes those things and uses them
Correctness requirements
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Producer must wait if buffer is full
Consumer must not extract things from empty buffer
Solutions
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Can be done with just load/store (but tricky)
We have seen simple semaphore-based solution for oneelement buffer
Perfect application for monitors
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Producer/Consumer with
Monitors
monitor producerconsumermonitor;
var buffer[0..slots-1] of message;
slotsinuse: 0..slots;
nexttofill, nexttoempty: 0..slots-1;
bufferhasdata, bufferhasspace: condition;
procedure fillslot(var data: message) begin
if slotsinuse = slots;
then wait(bufferhasspace);
buffer[nexttofill] := data;
nexttofill := (nexttofill + 1) mod slots;
slotsinuse := slotsinuse + 1;
signal(bufferhasdata);
end;
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Producer/Consumer with
Monitors (continued)
procedure emptyslot(var data: message) begin
if slotsinuse = 0;
then wait(bufferhasdata);
data := buffer[nexttoempty];
nexttoempty = (nexttoempty + 1) mod slots;
slotsinuse := slotsinuse – 1;
signal(bufferhasspace);
end;
begin
slotsinuse := 0;
nexttofill := 0;
nexttoempty := 0;
end;
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The Readers/Writers Problem
More complex than producer/consumer
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Many processes accessing single resource
Some read, some write (some could do both)
OK for many to read at once
 No danger of stepping on each others’ feet
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Only one writer allowed at a time
Examples:
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Shared access to file
ATMs displaying or updating bank balance
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Readers/Writers with
Semaphores (Polling Version)
semaphore mutex = 1;
int nreaders = 0, nwriters = 0;
void reader()
{
while (1) {
P(mutex);
while (nwriters != 0) {
V(mutex);
wait_a_while();
P(mutex);
}
nreaders++;
V(mutex);
read();
P(mutex);
nreaders--;
V(mutex);
}
}
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Readers/Writers with
Semaphores (Polling continued)
void writer()
{
while (1) {
P(mutex);
while (nreaders + nwriters != 0) {
V(mutex);
wait_a_while();
P(mutex);
}
nwriters++;
V(mutex);
write();
P(mutex);
nwriters--;
V(mutex);
}
}
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Readers/Writers with
Semaphores (Polling continued)
What are the drawbacks of this approach?
How can we write a non-polling version?
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Readers/Writers with Monitors
monitor readersandwriters;
var readers: integer;
someonewriting: boolean;
readallowed, writeallowed: condition;
procedure beginreading begin
if someonewriting or queue(writeallowed)
then wait(readallowed);
readers := readers + 1;
signal(readallowed);
end;
procedure donereading begin
readers := readers – 1;
if readers = 0 then signal(writeallowed);
end;
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Readers/Writers with Monitors
(continued)
procedure beginwriting begin
if readers ¬= 0 or someonewriting
then wait(writeallowed);
someonewriting := true;
end;
procedure donewriting begin
someonewriting := false;
if queue(readallowed)
then signal(readallowed);
else signal(writeallowed);
end;
begin
readers := 0;
someonewriting := false;
end;
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Readers/Writers with Monitors
Characteristics of solution
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No starvation
Arriving readers wait if writer is waiting
Group of readers runs after each writer
Arrival order of writer, writer, reader runs in different order
Requires several auxiliary variables
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Dining Philosophers
Models many important synchronization problems
Most famous concurrency problem
Posed by Dijkstra
Characteristics
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Five philosophers alternate thinking and eating
Only food is spaghetti
 Requires two forks
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Each philosopher has assigned seat at round table
One fork between each pair of plates
Problem: control access to forks, such that everyone can eat
 Note that “pick up left, then pick up right” doesn’t work
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Solvable with semaphores or monitors
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Drinking Philosophers
Extension of dining philosophers
Arbitrary number of philosophers
Each likes own drink, mixed from bottles on table
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Can only mix drink when holding all bottles
Each drink uses different subset of bottles
Problem: control access to bottles, such that there is
no deadlock and no starvation
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