Transcript Technician and General Handout

Technician/General
Illustrations
Element 2 and 3 Question Pool
July 1, 2014 to June 30, 2018
Definitions
•Regulatory Body – FCC rules are defined in Part 97
•Amateur Service – A radio communication service, carried out by
authorized individuals without pecuniary interest
•Amateur Operator – A person granted a license for amateur service
•Amateur Station – A station licensed for Amateur Service
•Amateur Space Station – An amateur station over 50KM high
•Unidentified Communications – Communications from an unidentified
source
•Interference – Unwanted signals that disrupt other communications
2
Rules 2014
Five Fundamental Purposes of Ham Radio
1. Recognition and enhancement of the value of the amateur service
to the public as a voluntary noncommercial communication
service, particularly with respect to providing emergency
communications.
2. Continuation and extension of the amateur’s proven ability to
contribute to the advancement of the radio art.
3. Encouragement and improvement of the amateur service through
rules which provide for advancing skills in both the
communications and technical phases of the art.
4. Expansion of the existing reservoir within the amateur radio
service of trained operators, technicians, and electronics experts.
5. Continuation and extension of the amateur’s unique ability to
enhance international goodwill.
FCC Rules
3
Hierarchy of Radio Regulations
International Telecommunication Union
a UN agency coordinating spectrum internationally
(makes recommendations)
1
European Conference of Postal and
Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT)
2 International Amateur Radio Union (IARU)
Federal Communication Commission (FCC)
Regulates US, Territories and Vessels
US Law: CFR Title 47(with 301 parts)
Part 97 Covers Amateur Radio Rules
Federal Communication Commission
(FCC)
Volunteer Examiner Coordinator (VEC)
Contracts with FCC to administer tests
There are 14
Volunteer Examiner (VE)
•
•
•
•
•
Must be certified by a VEC
Must be 18 years or older
Must have a General or higher
Must never has their license revoked or suspended
Need at least 3 VEs to administer a Test Session
National Committee Volunteer
Examiner Coordinators (NCVEC)
Has one member from each VEC
Maintains Test Question Pools
www.NCVEC.org
• The NCVEC coordinates VECs
• They created the NCVEC 605 application form
• The NCVEC question pool committee reviews
each question pool every four years
• They add, delete or modify questions
VE Exam Eligibility
Exam Element
General
2 – Technician written
X
3 – General written
4 – Extra written
Advanced
X
X
Extra
X
X
X
 General licensees can only administer Technician exams
 Advanced can administer Technician and General exams
 Extra licensees can administer all exams
Commission's Rules
7
Certificate of Successful Completion
(CSCE)
FCC Rules
8
FCC
Amateur
License
N7OS is a Club
Vanity License
9
Rules 2010
Callsign Groups
All valid US Callsigns start with A, K, N or W
and contain a digit 0-9
Group A
1x2, 2x1
W1AW, KU7M
Group B
2x2
KK7LK
Group C
1x3
N7WSU
Group D
2x3
KB7PJM
10
FCC Rules
US Call Districts
FCC Rules
11
Other Call Sign Categories
• Vanity Call Sign
– Custom call sign chosen by you
– Can be any valid callsign available to your license class
• Club Call Sign
– Call sign for your club
– Can be any valid callsign available to the trustee
• Special Event Call Sign
– 1x1 – N8D
– Valid only for the duration of the event
– Available to any amateur licensee
•12 4
Rules 2014
FCC Line A
Available spectrum mat change in border areas where uses don’t align
on the other side of the border. The amateur 70cm allocation runs
420-450MHz except north of line A where it’s only 430-450MHz.
13
Amateur
Radio
Station
•
•
•
•
A transmitter converts sounds into radio signals.
A receiver converts the radio signals back into sounds we
can hear.
When a transmitter and receiver are combined into a
single unit it is called a transceiver.
A power supply converts the wall outlet voltage to low
voltage direct current.
Station
Accessory
Equipment
•
•
•
•
A microphone converts sound waves to an electrical
signal and connects to the transmitter (or transceiver)
A speaker turns an electrical audio signal into sound
waves.
Headphones could be used in place of a speaker to help
you hear in a noisy area.
An amplifier can be used to increase the output of a 10
watt radio to 100 watts.
Repeater
Diagram
Repeater Access Tone
•
•
•
Continuous Tone Coded
Squelch System (CTCSS)
tones are sub-audible tones
added to an FM carrier.
Some repeater systems require
CTCSS tones to access.
To access a repeater, in
addition to knowing the
repeater offset or shift, as
previously discussed, you must
also know if a tone is required
and what it is.
VHF/UHF Propagation
VHF / UHF signals
typically travel by
line of sight
propagation
VHF / UHF signals
can be blocked by
and/or reflected
off mountains
and large
buildings.
VHF/UHF Propagation
Output Freq
(You listen)
147.000 MHz
Input Freq
(You transmit)
147.600 MHz
VHF / UHF
signals
typically travel
by line of sight
propagation
Offset
+ 600 kHz
VHF / UHF
signals can be
blocked by
and/or reflected
off mountains
and large
buildings.
60+ Miles
Distance
Operating Procedures
19
Frequency Coordinator
Local Frequency
Coordinators help organize
repeater activities within a
region to minimize
interference issues
The Western Washington
Amateur Relay Association
(WWARA) covers Western
Washington and has repeater
lists and the local band plan
WWARA
PO BOX 31521
SEATTLE WA 981031521
http://www.WWARA.org
FCC Rules
20
Repeater Input/Output Offsets
Band
10 meters
6 meters
2 meters
1.25 meters
70 cm
33 cm
23 cm
Channel spacing Offset
20 KHz
20 KHz
20 KHz
20 KHz
25 KHz
25 KHz
25 KHz
0.1 MHz
1.7 MHz
600 kHz
1.6 MHz
5 MHz
12 MHz
20 MHz
2 Meter and 70 cm are the most popular repeater band.
Amateur repeaters use standardized input and output pairs. Many
modern radios know the Bandplan and will handle this
automatically
21
Locally determined by the Frequency Coordinator.
Station Setup and Operation
ITU Phonetic Alphabet
Agreed upon words to
represent the letters of the
“roman alphabet”.
The boldfaced syllables are
emphasized. The
pronunciations shown in
this table were designed for
those who speak any of the
international languages.
The pronunciations given
for “Oscar”, “Papa” and
“Victor” may seem awkward
to English-speaking people
in the US.
22
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Alfa
Bravo
Charlie
Delta
Echo
Foxtrot
Golf
Hotel
India
Juliet
Kilo
Lima
Mike
November
Oscar
Papa
Quebec
Romeo
Sierra
Tango
Uniform
Victor
Whiskey
X-Ray
Yankee
Zulu
AL FAH
BRAH VOH
CHAR LEE
DELL TAH
ECK OH
FOKS TROT
GOLF
HOH TELL
IN DEE AH
JEW LEE ETT
KEY LOH
LEE MAH
MIKE
NO VEM BER
OSS CAH
PAH PAH
KEH BECK
ROW ME OH
SEE AIR RAH
TANG GO
YOU NEE FORM
VIK TAH
WISS KEY
ECKS RAY
YANG KEY
ZOO LOO
Operating Practices
Common Abbreviations
• CQ
Call Any Station
• RST
Readability, Signal Strength, Tone
• DX
Distance, foreign country
• 73
Best Regards
• DE
From, this is
• PTT
Push To Talk
• VOX
Voice Activated Switch
• CTCSS
Continuous Tone Coded Squelch System
Many of these date back to early use of Morse code
23
Operating Practices
Q Signals
QRM Man-made noise
QRN
Atmospheric noise
QSY Change frequency
QTH
Current/home location
QSB Atmospheric fading
QSL
Confirmation of report
QSK Full break-in keying
QRV
Ready to receive
QRS Send more slowly
QRQ
Send more quickly
QRL Is frequency in use?
QRP
Low Power
24
CW Prosigns
DX – Distant station (outside the country)
CQ – Calling any station
AR – "+" over, end of message
K – go, invite any station to transmit
KN – go only, invite a specific station to transmit
BK – invite receiving station to transmit
AS – please stand by
SK – end of contact (sent before call)
CL – Closing station (clear)
25
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) Regions
26
FCC Rules
US Amateurs May Handle Third-Party
Traffic With:
V2
Antigua/Barbuda
JY
Jordan
LO-LW
Argentina
EL
Liberia
VK
Australia
V7
Marshall Islands
V3
Belize
XA-XI
Mexico
CP
Bolivia
E7
Bosnia-Herzegovina
V6
Micronesia, Federated
States of
PP-PY
Brazil
YN
Nicaragua
VE, VO, VY
Canada
HO-HP
Panama
CA-CE
Chile
ZP
Paraguay
HJ-HK
Colombia
OA-OC
Peru
D6
Comoros (Federal Islamic
Republic of)
DU-DZ
Philippines
TI, TE
Costa Rica
VR6
Pitcairn Island*
CM, CO
Cuba
V4
St. Kitts/Nevis
HI
Dominican Republic
J6
St. Lucia
J7
Dominica
J8
HC-HD
Ecuador
St. Vincent and the
Grenadines
YS
El Salvador
9L
Sierra Leone
C5
Gambia, The
ZR-ZU
South Africa
9G
Ghana
3DA
Swaziland
J3
Grenada
9Y-9Z
Trinidad/Tobago
TG
Guatemala
TA-TC
Turkey
8R
Guyana
GB
United Kingdom
HH
Haiti
CV-CX
Uruguay
HQ-HR
Honduras
YV-YY
Venezuela
4X, 4Z
Israel
4U1ITU
ITU - Geneva
Jamaica
4U1VIC
VIC - Vienna
6Y
http://www.arrl.org/third-party-operatingagreements
FCC Rules
27
FCC Rules
28
Technician HF Privileges
Notes
This information does not
appear in the Technician
examNotes
This information does not
appear in the Technician
exam
Technician Licensees may
use up to 1500 watts PEP
Technician + HF Licensees
may use up to 1500 watts
PEP and 200 watts PEP on
the HF bands
Technician Licensees
may use up to 1500
watts PEP
Technician + HF
Licensees may use up to
1500 watts PEP and 200
watts PEP on the HF
bands
FCC Rules
29
Radio Propagation
•
•
Propagation is the path radio waves travel from one
station to another.
Three basic types of propagation:
• Line of Sight.
• Ground Wave.
• Sky Wave.
Ground Wave Propagation
Travels along the ground. Distance is determined by signal
power, 50,000 Watt, AM station goes about 60 miles
Line of Sight Propagation
•
•
Line of Sight propagation
is when the transmitting and
receiving stations are within
direct sight of each other.
The Radio Horizon is the
point where radio signals
between two points are
blocked by the earth's
curvature.
Sky Wave Propagation
•
•
At HF frequencies radio
waves can be reflected
by the Ionosphere.
At VHF and higher
frequencies the waves
usually pass through
the ionosphere.
VHF/UHF
HF
E & F layers
Propagation
 Ionosphere Layers




The Atmosphere is divided into layers A,B,C,D,E,F
The Ionosphere consist of layers D, E, and F
The D layer absorbs low frequencies
The F layer typically reflects radio waves < 30 MHz
 Refraction
 E layer refraction can be 1200 miles
 The higher altitude F layer refraction can be 2500
miles
 Balancing Absorption and Refraction
 D layer absorption defines Lowest Usable Frequency
(LUF)
 E and F layer refraction determine Maximum Usable
Frequency (MUF)
34
Radio Waves
Ionospheric Layers
35
Radio Wave Propagation
Critical Angle
The highest frequency that can be refracted is the “critical frequency” and
generally the Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF). If the angle if the wave
is too steep, it will continue into space. The steepest angle that will be
refracted back to the surface is the “critical angle”.
Backscatter Propagation
The ionosphere can refract HF radio waves long distances. There is
generally a dead area called a “skip zone” the radio waves pass over. In
some cases a small amount of energy is scattered into the skip zone and can
be received with a wavering sound.
37
Sporadic “E” Propagation
Small areas of the “E”
Region can become highly
ionized
Allows long distance skywave propagation on the
VHF bands
Most likely to occur on the
6 meter band in the
summertime
By its name, it is
“sporadic”.
Atmospheric Layers
Tropospheric Ducting
Ducts can be formed
during temperature
inversions in very stable
weather conditions.
Ducts are common in
the midwest and along
the coast (over open
water) during summer.
Radio waves are refracted between
the earth and transition in the duct.
This is primarily a VHF phenomena
and allows propagation for hundreds
or thousands of miles. The 2m
distance record is between California
and Hawaii (2500mi) via a tropo duct.
41
Reflection and Multi-path Interference
Radio waves can be reflected off objects and arrive at the receiver at different
times. This causes “ghosting” of analog TV signals and distortion of radio
signals. Moving the receiver a few inches or feet may resolve the problem.
42
Icom IC-7000 Multimode
Transceiver
Keypad for band changes
and frequency entry
Up/Down Buttons
Volume/Squelch
Control
Noise Blanker
Tune Step
(TS)
RIT
43
Radio Practices 2014
VFO or
Tuning Knob
Power Supply
This Daiwa 12v regulated power supply has a
meter that can display voltage and current
44
Radio Practices 2014
Speech Processor
A speech processor is internal to modern radios and is designed to
compress the dynamic range of transmitted audio which increases the
average power output. When properly adjusted, this will increase the
signal intelligibility. They are often overused to the point of distortion.
45
Oscilloscope
An oscilloscope has
the ability to display
complex waveforms.
Signals are fed into
the scope and the
internal horizontal and
vertical amplifiers
generate the display
of waveform amplitude
vertically and time
horizontally.
By connecting the RF output of a transmitter
(through appropriate connections) to the vertical
input of the scope, the quality of a transmitted
signal can be seen on the display.
46
Amateur Radio Practices
Audio Distortion
Two tone audio tests
are used on an
oscilloscope to test
proper linearity. The
pure tones fed in will
give you a stable
picture on the scope
if the amplifier is
properly adjusted.
The lower image
shows a signal with
some noise that it
also overdriven
(overmodulated)
Any two audio tones may be used, but they must be
and is clipping or
within the transmitter audio passband, and should not
flattopping.
be harmonically related.
47
Amateur Radio Practices
Wavelength vs Frequency
The distance a radio wave travels in one cycle is called wavelength
The number of cycles per second is frequency
The maximum displacement of wave from reference value is amplitude
V+
One Cycle
Amplitude
0V
Time
VOne Wavelength
48
Radio Waves 2014
Frequency to Wavelength Conversion
• To convert from frequency to wavelength
in meters:
300
Wavelength = Freq (MHz)
Frequency and wavelength are inversely proportional –
as one increases, the other decreases
Longer (wavelength) – Lower (frequency)
49
Radio Waves 2014
Frequency Calculations
•300 is the Speed of Light in free space
–Radio wave travel at the Speed of Light
–300,000,000 meters per second
–Radio waves moves slower in wire
–Velocity Factor is speed in a material
divided by the speed of light i.e. .66
•f is frequency in millions (MHz)
–The millions of cycles cancel the
millions of meters
–146,520,000 = 146.53 MHz
300
f
•m is Wave length in Meters or the
distance of a full cycle
–How far it takes a wave to complete a
complete cycle
–The higher the frequency the lower the
300
meter (shorter)
–The lower the frequency the higher the
meters (longer)
Electrical Principles 2014
m
=fxm
50
Frequency Calculations
To solve for a value, cover it with your finger and solve the remaining formula
300
f
300,000,000
Wave
Frequency
length
meters
m
300 is the speed of light
300,000,000 meters per
second
f
51
is frequency in MHz
m is Wave Length
distance in meters of a full
cycle at this frequency
Electrical Principles 2014
Frequency Calculations
freq = 300/m
300
f
MHz
m
Electrical Principles 2014
52
Meters Calculations
meters = 300/f
300
f
m
Electrical Principles 2014
53
Solar Effects
•Sun Spots
–Sunspots look darker because they’re cooler than
surrounding areas but emit ultraviolet light that charge the
Ionosphere. More sunspots mean improved upper HF and
lower VHF propagation.
•Sun Spot Cycle
–Sunspots tend to come and go from minimum to maximum to
minimum in an 11 year cycle. Different cycles have different
maximums.
•Solar Emissions
–Electromagnetic emissions like ultraviolet and x-rays arrive
at the earth in only 8 minutes. Particle emissions can take
20-40 hours to arrive at the earth where they are pulled to
the poles by the earth’s magnetic field.
•Solar Rotation
–The sun rotates every 28
days (a solar day)
54
Radio Waves
Measuring the Sun
•Solar Flux
–A measure of the sun’s noise at 10.7cm
•Solar K-index
–The K-index quantifies disturbances in the horizontal
component of earth's magnetic field during a 3 hour interval
with an integer in the range 0-9 with 1 being calm and 5 or
more indicating a geomagnetic storm
•Solar A-index
–The A-index provides a daily average level for
geomagnetic activity
Sunspots
Sunspots peak during 11-year cycles.
The higher the sunspot count, the more the
atmosphere is ionized.
Thus, higher sunspot counts support a higher Maximum
Usable Frequency (MUF).
56
Radio Waves
Communications Headset
HiFi headphones are
designed to cover the
entire range of human
hearing (20-20,000Hz)
equally well.
Communications
headphones are only
designed to reproduce
the 300-3000Hz voice
frequencies which helps
reduce non-voice noise
that might come out of
the receiver. This
model includes a boom
microphone that
minimizes background
noise and insures
consistent voice quality.
57
Push-to-Talk (PTT) is via a foot switch on the floor to
leave the operators hands free.
Radio Practices 2014
Station Logs
QSL cards like this
are confirmations that
a conversation (QSO)
took place. Many
hams collect cards
from all over the
country and the world.
Awards are available
for worked all states
(WAS), 100 countries
(DXCC), etc.
Station logs are not required but are helpful diagnostics and when
responding to QSL card requests. The information in the log is generally
what is written into the boxes on the QSL card.
58
RACES / ARES
RACES – Radio Amateur Civil
Emergency Service
Work with local, state and
federal government only
When activated, you work for the
government (Restricted)
When activated, mission
participants are covered by
government insurance
ARES - Amateur Radio
Emergency Service
Health and welfare
Work with government and
NGO (Red Cross, Salvation
Army) and support services
When activated, you still are a
civilian
Note – both groups do good work, and many hams belong to both groups,
also both groups are often combined.
59
Operating Practices
Formal Message Traffic
Preamble
Check is the
word count in the
message a
provides basic
error-checking
60
Operating Procedures
Decibel Multipliers
Multiplier
10 TIMES
Power Increase
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
4 TIMES
6
4
2
2 TIMES
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Decibel (dB)
T5 - Electrical Plus
61
3 db
6 db
61
10 db
10
11 12
13
14
Low Pass, High Pass Filters
Low Pass
0 dB
-3 dB
Pass
Band
Stop
Band
40 dB
fc
Frequency
High Pass
0 dB
-3 dB
Stop
Band
40 dB
62
Pass
Band
fc
Frequency
Radio Practices 2014
Band Pass Filter
HIGH PASS SIDE
&
LOW PASS SIDE
0 dB
-3 dB
Stop
Band
40 dB
Low
Frequency
63
HIGH PASS
Pass
Band
fc
Stop
Band
fc
&
High
Frequency
LOW PASS
Radio Practices 2014
Notch (Band Stop) Filter
There are notch filters built to
notch out the powerful pager
transmitters located just above
the 2m band.
Very effective notch filters can be
made with a 1/2 wavelength piece
of coax shorted on one end
connected to a coaxial “T”
connector on the other. These
are often called “stubs”.
LOW PASS SIDE & HIGH PASS SIDE
0 dB
-3 dB
Pass
Band
40 dB
Low
Frequency
Stop
Band
fc
LOW PASS
Pass
Band
fc
&
High
Frequency
HIGH PASS
Repeaters use cavity notch filters that have very sharp skirts to keep
the transmitter from interfering with the receiver, since they’re both
active at the same time on very close frequencies.
64
Station Setup and Operation
Snap-on Ferrites
(Suppression Choke)
Common mode currents can
be created in the shield of a
coax or audio cable and can
cause audio or transmitter
distortion. These ferrite beads
can be snapped over the wire
to reduce this current.
RF can be picked up by PA or
stereo systems. Sideband
voice signals will often sound
very distorted and CW can
cause a buzzing or clicking.
These ferrites and a good
ground will often resolve this.
65
Conductors and Insulators
In a conductor, electric current can flow freely, in an insulator it cannot. Simply
stated, most metals are good electrical conductors, most nonmetals are not.
Metals are also generally good heat conductors while nonmetals are not.
Crosssection of
copper
wire
- - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - -
-
Copper’s valence electrons
move freely throughout the
solid copper metal
Cu
66
Neighboring electrons
are repulsed by the
motion of electrons,
creating a chain reaction
that propagates through
the material at nearly
the speed of light.
Copper and other metals have a weak hold on their
outer or “valence” electrons. Atoms of insulating
materials have a tight grip on their outer electrons.
Conductors –
Copper, Silver, Gold,
Aluminum, Platinum,
Steel, …
Insulators – Glass,
Wood, Rubber, Air,
Plastic …
Note: Salt water is a
conductor, and so are
you!
Radio and Electronic Fundamentals
Voltage, Current, Resistance
You need a circuit for electricity to flow
Components of a circuit: Source, Conductors, Load, Sink (Ground)
+
Voltage
Resistance
(Load)
-
67
Current
Electrical Principles 2010
Metric Units of Measure
LARGER than
1
SMALLER than 1
109 106 103 102 101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12
G
M
k
h da
d
c
m
µ
n
p
giga
mega
Gigahertz
Megahertz
Kilohertz
kilo
hecto deca
1,000,000,000
1,000,000
1,000
0
deci
milli
micro
nano pico
Ampere
1
Milliampere
0.001
Microampere
0.000 001
Nanoampere
Picofarad
0.000 000 001
0.000 000 000 001
Hertz
1
68
T5 - Electrical Plus
68
centi
Electrical Principles 2010
System of Metric Units
giga
Mega
kilo
G 109
M 106
K 103
basic unit
milli
Micro
nano
pico
69
m
µ
n
p
100
1,000,000,000.0
1,000,000.0
1,000.0
Ω
10-3 mh mV
10-6 µh µV µf
10-9
10-12 picofarads
T5 - Electrical Plus
1.0
f
f Ω
f Ω kV kW
f Ω V W
0.001
0.000 001
0.000 000 001
0.000 000 000 001
Units of Measure
Power
Watt
Current
Ampere
Voltage
Volt
Resistance
Ohm
Frequency
Hertz
Inductance
Henry (AC ohms)
Capacitance
Farad
Radio and Electronic Fundamentals
in cycles
(AC ohms)
70
Watts Law:
Voltage, Current and Power
WAV
•Potential – Electromotive Force
–Electromotive Force (E)
–Units – Volts
–Unit Symbol V – 10V
–Measured across (parallel to load)
WATAGE CIRCLE
W
•Current – Electron flow
–Current (I)
–Unites – Amps, Amperes
–Unit Symbol A – 0.1A
–Measured through (inline with load)
•Power (P)
–Watts
–Units – Watts
–Unit Symbol W – 60W
Electrical Principles 2014
P
I
A
E
V
W=AxV
P=I x E
71
Ohms Law - Unit Circle
Voltage, Current and Resistance
Potential – Electromotive Force
Electromotive Force (V)
Units – Volts
Unit Symbol V – 10V
Measured across (parallel to load)
Current – Electron flow
Current (A)
Units – Amps, Amperes
Unit Symbol A – 0.1A
Measured through (inline with load)
Resistance (R)
Ohms (O)
Units – Ohms
Unit Symbol Ω – 60 Ω
Voice Of America
VOLTAGE CIRCLE
V
E
R
O
I
A
V=OxA
E=IxR
72
Ohm’s Law and Watts Law
Calculations
To solve for a value, cover it with your finger and solve the remaining formula
I
A
V
W
E
P
I
R
O
E=Voltage (Volts)
A
E
V
I=Current (Amps)
V = O x A
OR
E = I x R
73
R=Resistance (Ohms)
P=Power (Watts)
W = A x V
OR
P = I x E
Electrical Principles 2010
Resistors
Resistors oppose the flow of current
in a DC (or AC) circuit). Their values
are represented with the colored
strips or numbers and will vary
slightly with temperature.
A variable resistor is called a
potentiometer and is often used for
volume controls
74
Inductors
Inductors are
generally coils of wire
that store energy in a
magnetic field
75
Capacitors
Ceramic capacitors
(cheap)
Air
Variable
Capacitor
Electrolytic capacitors
(polarized, high capacity)
Capacitors are conductive plates
separated by an insulator and stores
energy in an electric field
(electrostatically)
76
Diode
Electronic one-way “valve”, used e.g. in rectifiers
Mostly made of Si, Ga
Different types: PN diodes, Schottky
Electrodes are called anode
and cathode with the cathode
indicated by a stripe
77
G6 - Circuit Components
Transistors (Bipolar)
Can be used as an electronic switch or amplifier
Comprised of three layers of semiconductor (PNP, NPN)
Generally have three electrodes (emitter, base, collector)
Field Effect Transistors (FET) have source, drain and gate instead
78
Transistors (FET)
Can be used as an electronic switch or amplifier
Comprised of three layers of semiconductor (PNP, NPN)
Field Effect Transistors (FET) have source, drain and gate
Act most like a triode tube
79
Transformer
Transformers are two coils wound
around each other or a common
core used to change voltage or
impedance.
Voltage applied to a primary winding
will induce a voltage in the
secondary winding based on the
ratio of turns in the two windings.
A 10:1 turns ratio will allow 120v on
the primary to be converted to 12v
on the secondary windings via
mutual inductance.
Electrical Principles
80
Schematic Symbols
Resistor
Capacitor
SPST
Switch
Variable
Resistor
Lamp
LED
Transistor
Transformer
Antenna
Battery
Variable
Inductor
81
Electrical Components 2014
Vacuum Tubes
Tubes regulate current flow
between cathode and plate with
a control grid. Their size can
also create unwanted
capacitances. A screen grid
can be added to reduce grid-toplate capacitance.
Although still used in high
power applications (large
amplifiers), they have been
largely replaced with transistors.
The Field Effect Transistor
(FET) has characteristics most
similar to a tube.
Electrical Components 2014
82
Vacuum Tubes
83
Electrical Components 2014
Shift Register
A clocked array of circuits that passes data in
steps along the array
G7 - Practical Circuits
84
Sine wave oscillators
Basic bipolar transistor
amplifying circuit
G7 - Practical Circuits
85
Half Wave Power Supply
86
G7 - Practical Circuits
Regulated Power Supply
The transformer converts 120 volt AC line voltage to 12.6 volts AC.
The bridge rectifier feeds pulsed DC into the large capacitor which filters
the power to DC. The 7812 voltage regulator takes the DC input and
creates a stable 12 volt DC output. The final capacitor removes any ripple
from the regulator and stabilizes the output.
87
G7 - Practical Circuits
Amplifier classes
Class A
Class B
• Linear
• Bias
current
• Low
efficiency
• 360
degrees
• High
distortion
• Better
efficiency
• 180-360
degrees
Class AB
Class C
• Linear
• Better
efficiency
• More
complex
• 360
Degrees
G7 - Practical Circuits
• NonLinear
• High
efficiency
• 0-180
degrees
88
Digital Gates
AND
NAND
A
B
Q
A
B
Q
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
Notice the NAND and
NOR gates are exactly
the opposite of their
counterparts. The AND
or OR function is
performed and the result
is inverted or NOTed.
A and B are inputs
to the gates with Q
being the output
value.
OR
NOR
A
B
Q
A
B
Q
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
1
1
0
89
G7 - Practical Circuits
Multimeter
Multimeters generally
include voltmeters,
ammeters and can
measure resistance.
They have a high
internal impedance in
voltage mode to
minimize impact on
the circuit under test.
Digital models can
be very precise but
analog models are
often favored for
tuning circuits.
90
Station Grounding
A common RF ground
reduces shock/RF burn
hazard and hum in devices
91
Amateur Radio Practices
Icom IC-756ProIII IF DSP Receiver
Once the signal has been digitized, Digital Signal Processing (DSP) notch
filter, adjustable bandpass filters and noise reduction filters can be applied.
The primary advantage of an IF DSP system is that virtually any type of filter
can be created and the unwanted signals can be removed without affecting
AGC performance. DSP filtering allows virtually any filter shape to be created
including a dual peak filter specifically to filter the mark and space tones of an
RTTY signal.
92
Amateur Radio Practices
Simple Single-Sideband Phone Transmitter
Speech
Amp
Balanced
Modulator
Mixer
Linear
RF Amp
Filter
Filter
Carrier
Oscillator
Heterodyne
Oscillator
The microphone audio is modulated into AM by mixing with the carrier oscillator in
the balanced modulator. The filter removes the unwanted products before mixing
again to create the signal on the desired frequency. That final signal is amplified
and sent to the antenna.
93
Amplitude Modulation
as seen on an ocilloscope
Amplitude is vertical
Time is horizontal
An unmodulated RF
carrier wave
A carrier wave
amplitude
modulated (AM) with
a simple audio tone
94
Communications Modes and Methods
Amplitude Modulation
as seen on a spectrum analyzer
Amplitude is vertical
Frequency is horizontal
An unmodulated RF
carrier requires narrow
bandwidth
95
I 6 KHz I
Modulation of the carrier
creates sidebands. This
requires more bandwidth.
Transmitter power is
spread across this
bandwidth
Communications Modes and Methods
AM and SSB
The carrier contains no
audio information.
The sidebands contain
duplicate audio information
I I
3 KHz
By filtering out the carrier and one sideband,
we save spectrum and concentrate our RF
energy into a narrower bandwidth. SSB is
therefore more efficient.
96
Communications Modes and Methods
Single Sideband - SSB
• Single Sideband is a
modification of amplitude
modulation (AM).
AM
LSB
USB
• In SSB, the carrier and one of
the side bands is removed.
• SSB is often used for long
distance and weak signal
contacts.
• An advantage of SSB over
FM & AM is it uses much less
bandwidth 3 kHz vs 15 kHz
• Disadvantage: harder to tune
and not as clear to hear.
X
USB
Morse Code
Amplitude Modulation - AM
Frequency Modulation - FM
•
•
•
FM varies the
frequency of the
signal to carry the
information.
FM requires a
much wider
bandwidth than
SSB.
FM is used for
VHF & UHF voice
repeaters.
Frequency Modulation
Unmodulated carrier, full power
at all times
Waveform of modulating signal
Modulated carrier with frequency
deviation and constant amplitude
“Over modulation” called “over deviation” on FM, causes the signal to
become wider and potentially cause adjacent channel interference.
Phase Modulation (PM) uses a reactance modulator and is similar to FM
and can be received with the same equipment.
Modulation Modes 2014
Sample Emission Modes
Mode
Type
Bandwidth
Content
CW
Telegraphy
10 Hz
Text Data
SSB
Telephony
2800 Hz
Voice
AM
Telephony
6 kHz
Voice
FM
Telephony
5-15 kHz
Voice
SSTV / Fax
Image
2800 Hz
Image
ATV
Image
6 MHz
Image
PSK31
Data
31 Hz
Text Data
RTTY
Data
250 Hz
Text Data
Pactor
(I, II, III)
Data
500-2800 Hz
Binary Data
AX.25 Packet
Data
10-20 kHz
Binary Data
102
Radio Practices 2014
Common Required Bandwidth
•CW – 5-10Hz
•Phone / Voice
–SSB - 2-3 kHz
–AM – 4-6 kHz
–FM – 5-15 kHz
•Digital
–PSK31 – 31 Hz
–RTTY – 250 Hz
•Slow Scan TV – 3KHz
•Fast Scan TV – 6Mhz
103
Communications Modes and Methods
Maximum Allowable Data
Symbol Rates
•Below 10 meters (28 MHz) 300 baud
•10 Meter band
1200 baud
•6 and 2 meters
19.6 kilobaud
Maximum 20Khz
•1.25m and 70cm
56 kilobaud
Commission's Rules
104
Maximum Power Levels
Maximum 1500 watts PEP!
Exceptions - 200 watts PEP maximum
On 30 meters
Novice/Tech+ sub bands
80 meters (3675-3725 kHz)
40 meters (7100-7150 kHz)
15 meters (21100-21200 kHz)
Commission's Rules
105
PSK31 Digital Mode
PSK31 is a low speed, narrow bandwidth data mode
that provides VERY EFFICIENT keyboard to keyboard
chat capability. PSK31 is not error-corrected. It uses a
“varicode” where common letters use fewer bits for
better speed.
106
Amateur Television Signal
A 6 MHz ATV video channel
with the video carrier 1.25
MHz up from the lower
edge. The color subcarrier
is at 3.58 MHz and the
sound subcarrier at 4.5 MHz
above the video carrier.
Lower freq
0
higher freq
6 MHZ
The Luminance, Chrominance and
Audio carriers are visible in the
spectrum plot at left
107
Communications Modes and Methods
National Television Systems Committee
NTSC, analog standard
(Replaced by digital TV mode)
• Television Standards
– NTSC – Canada, US, Japan, South Korea
– PAL
– SECAM
108
Communications Modes and Methods
Maidenhead Grids
Two letters and two numbers define an area 1° latitude x 2°
longitude anywhere in the world. Seattle is CN87, Portland CN85.
109
Uses in many contest
EchoLink® and IRLP
EchoLink® software allows licensed Amateur Radio stations to communicate
with one another over the Internet, using voice-over-IP (VoIP) technology.
110
Communications Modes and Methods
APRS – Automatic Position
Reporting System
Real-time
Location
Mapping,
Weather
and
Messaging
111
Communications Modes and Methods
Antenna Analyzer and SWR
Antenna analyzers can be
used to verify antenna
impedance (match). A perfect
SWR of 1:1 is ideal but
anything less than 2:1 is OK
and over 3:1 the antenna
should be checked.
SWR is not a performance
measurement (dummy loads
are perfect at 1:1) but is
important to verify proper
operation.
112
Station Equipment 2014
Antenna Analyzer
Antenna analyzers can be used
to verify antenna impedance
(match). The connect directly to
the antenna and use a small
internal transmitter to read the
resulting match.
This does make them sensitive to
other transmitters operating in
the area.
They can also be used to read
the impedance of connectors and
coax.
113
ANALYZERS and SWR METERS
114
Station Equipment 2014
Directional Wattmeter
A directional wattmeter can
measure both forward (to the
load/antenna) and reflected
power. This ratio determines
the Standing Wave Ratio
(SWR). A perfect match will
have all forward power and
none reflected or a 1:1 SWR.
The meter installs between
the transmitter and antenna.
This unit has two needles. One shows forward power, the other
reflected. The SWR can be read where they cross (on the red scale).
115
Field Strength Meter
Here are two digital Field
Strength Meter models.
Some SWR meters and
frequency counters can also
be used as field strength
meters.
Field Strength Meters are
used to test the density of
an RF field when near the
transmitter (near field). This
can help determine the
radiation pattern of an
antenna and locate a
nearby transmitter.
116
Amateur Radio Practices
Dummy Loads
Prevent the radiation of signals when
making tests
Create a 50 Ohm load like an antenna
Some are oil filled
Station Equipment
117
Antenna
Classifications
•Orientation
–Horizontal – parallel to the Earth
–Vertical – perpendicular to the
Earth
•Directivity (Beam)
–Yagi, Log Periodic, Quad, Dish
•Size
–Wavelength – λ
–½ λ, ¼ λ, ⅝ λ, …
–# of elements
118
Vertical Antenna
Standard ¼ wave vertical
has a feedpoint impedance
of ~35 ohms
Sloping ground radials
downward raises feedpoint
impedance toward 50 ohms
G9 - Antennas
119
Horizontal Antennas
Half Wavelength Dipole Antenna)
Half wavelength
from formula
Solder
Spacer
Open wire
feeder
Half wavelength
Wavelength (meters) =
300
F (MHz)
Meters to inches
½λ Dipole length (inches) = Wavelength / 2 x 39
120
Radio Waves, Propagation and Antennas
½ λ Dipole Radiation
Radiation pattern for a
dipole placed ½ λ
above ground looking
down from above the
antenna.
Looks like a doughnut
around the wire in 3D
space.
Pattern distorts to
omnidirectional when
placed low to the ground.
121
Radio Waves, Propagation and Antennas
Beam Antennas
122
The director
acts like a
lens
Boom
Director
Feedline
Reflector
The reflector
acts like a
mirror
Driven Element
(Yagi Antenna ½ wave elements)
Gain
Radio Waves, Propagation and Antennas
Yagi Radiation Pattern
The yagi antenna focuses
RF energy in one direction,
giving the appearance of
getting “free power.”
This free power or
Effective Radiated Power
(ERP) can be expressed as
antenna Gain in Decibels
(dB) over a dipole (dBd) or
isotropic resonator (dBi).
123
Radio Waves, Propagation and Antennas
Vertical Antennas
(Quarter Wavelength Vertical)
Radials
Ground Plane
Ground
Marconi
Ground Plane
300
Wavelength (meters) =
F (MHz)
Quarter wavelength
Meters to inches
¼λ vertical length (inches) = Wavelength / 4 x 39
124
Radio Waves, Propagation and Antennas
Quarter Wave Vertical Radiation
Perfect Ground
Average Ground
Maximum Radiation Angle
Elevation
0 dB= 5.10 dBi
7.150 MHz
A side view of the radiation pattern of a 1/4 wave vertical.
From above the pattern is round like a doughnut. A perfect
ground would be the center of a metal car roof at VHF/UHF.
125
Radio Waves, Propagation and Antennas
Quad antenna
(Full wave antenna)
Each side is about
1 /4 of a wave
length
126
G9 - Antennas
Delta Loop
(Full wave antenna)
Each side is about
1 /3 of a wave
length
127
G9 - Antennas
Antenna Traps
based on a 1/2 wave length
Dipole, vertical and yagi
antennas can contain
tuned traps in their
driven elements. The
traps block (or trap)
energy of a given
frequency making a
physically longer
appear shorter
electrically.
In the dipole shown, any energy on the 15m band will stop at the 15m
trap and the antenna will only appear to be the width of a 15m antenna.
Similarly, 20m signals will stop at the 20m traps and only see the antenna
between the traps. Only 40m signals will pass along the entire length.
128
Loaded Antennas
“Rubber duck” antennas
are loaded antennas where
the antenna is wound into a
coil to shorten it physically.
This is not an efficient
radiator and narrows the
bandwidth but does allow
portable operation. This is
particularly important on
the HF bands.
The antennas on the left are called “screwdrivers” and use a motor and
wiper inside the coil to adjust the amount of loading based on frequency.
The center antenna has the upper whip attached with a “capacitance hat”
to provide capacitance to counteract inductance in the load coil and
improve performance.
Radio Waves, Propagation and Antennas 2014
Azimuthal Map
•The Azimuthal
Projection provides
accurate antenna
bearings to other
locations on the globe
via “great circle” routes
•Short path and long
path bearings are easily
found
130
Operating Procedures
Decibel Multipliers
28
26
24
22
20
Multiplier
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11 12
13
14
Decibel (dB)
The Decibel scale is logarithmic. 3dB represents a 2-fold increase in power,
6dB is 4 fold, 10dB is 10-fold, 20dB is 100-fold. The S-Unit scale on a receiver
meter is not an absolute scale and can vary from radio to radio. Although these
meters are not calibrated, they can be useful for verifying antenna performance.
One “S-Unit” represents a 4-fold change in power or 6dB.
131
Feedlines
•
•
•
•
•
•
Feedlines carry RF signals from the radio to the antenna
Coax, twin lead, ladder or window line are common feedlines
The longer the feedline, the more loss that occurs
Larger feedlines generally have less loss
Loss is caused by RF energy being converted to heat
Feedline impedance must match the radio and antenna for
maximum power transfer
• Air dielectric in coax is low loss but may allow water entry
• Ultraviolet light degrades insulation which may crack and allow
water entry
• Corrosion from water exposure is the #1 coax killer
132
Station Equipment 2014
Coax Cable Signal Loss (Attenuation) in dB per 100ft
133
Loss
RG-174
RG-58
RG-8X
RG-213
RG-6
9913
LMR-400
O.D.
0.100in
0.195in
0.242in
0.405in
0.270in
0.405in
0.405in
1MHz
1.9dB
0.4dB
0.5dB
0.2dB
0.2dB
0.2dB
0.3dB
10MHz
3.3dB
1.4dB
1.0dB
0.6dB
0.6dB
0.4dB
0.5dB
50MHz
6.6dB
3.3dB
2.5dB
1.6dB
1.4dB
0.9dB
0.9dB
100MHz
8.9dB
4.9dB
3.6dB
2.2dB
2.0dB
1.4dB
1.4dB
200MHz
11.9dB
7.3dB
5.4dB
3.3dB
2.8dB
1.8dB
1.8dB
400MHz
17.3dB
11.2dB
7.9dB
4.8dB
4.3dB
2.6dB
2.6dB
700MHz
26.0dB
16.9dB
11.0dB
6.6dB
5.6dB
3.6dB
3.5dB
900MHz
27.9dB
20.1dB
12.6dB
7.7dB
6.0dB
4.2dB
3.9dB
1GHz
32.0dB
21.5dB
13.5dB
8.3dB
6.1dB
4.5dB
4.1dB
Imped
50ohm
50ohm
50ohm
50ohm
75ohm
50ohm
50ohm
G9 - Antennas
Feedlines
134
G9 - Antennas
Connectors
DE-9 Serial
data
PL-259 RF,
Good to
~150MHz
DIN Multiconductor audio/control
RCA Audio/
Video
135
N Waterproof RF,
Good to
~10GHz
SMA Small RF,
Good to
several GHz
Electrical Components 2014
Connector Types
Antennas & Feedlines
136
Hardline, Heliex, and Coax
Air Core Hard line
Hard line
Coax
137
RMS, Peak and Peak to Peak Voltages
There are three key voltage measurements, RMS (Vrms), Peak (Vpk) and Peak to
Peak (Vpp). The Peak voltage is relative to ground. RMS or Root Mean Square is
more of an “average” voltage over the duration of the AC cycle. RMS voltage is
calculated by multiplying 0.707 times the peak voltage. The Peak to Peak voltage
measures from the peak of the positive swing to the peak of the negative swing.
138
Electrical Principles
Impedance and Reactance
• Impedance
• Opposition to the flow of current in an AC Circuit
• Matching impedances insures maximum power
delivery
• Reactance
• Opposition to AC current flow caused by capacitance
or inductance
• Reactance in inductors increases with frequency
• Reactance in capacitors decreases with frequency
139
Electrical Principles 2014
Resonant Circuit
When inductors and capacitors are used in the same circuit, the circuit is said
to be resonant when inductive and capacitive reactance are equal.
Matching load impedance is important to insure maximum power delivery.
140
Electrical Principles
Half Wavelength Dipole Antenna
141
Antennas & Feedlines
Azimuthal Map
•The Azimuthal
Projection provides
accurate antenna
bearings to other
locations on the globe
via “great circle” routes
•Short path and long
path bearings are easily
found
142
Operating Procedures
Using a Gin Pole
Full body harness
143
Safety 2014
Crank Up Towers
144
Safety 2014
Tower Base and Grounding
Ground rods are 8
foot long and
bonded together
Electrical Safety
145
Power Thresholds for Routine Evaluation
The FCC requires a
station RF safety
evaluation if these power
levels are exceeded
Note power level varies by
band because the human
body is more sensitive
(Specific Absorption Rate
or SAR) to some
frequencies than others
Band (Wavelength)
160 m
75 m
80 m
40 m
30 m
20 m
17 m
15 m
12 m
10 m
6 - 1.23 m
70 cm
33 cm
23 cm
13 cm and up
146
Transmitter Power (W)
500
500
500
500
425
225
125
100
75
50
50
70
150
200
250
Duty Cycle
Duty cycle refers to both the transmit vs. receive time and the average
power level during transmission. Because CW has gaps between
symbols the average power is less than 100%. SSB power output varies
with modulation. FM is full power regardless of modulation.
Mode
CW Morse telegraphy
Duty Cycle
40%
SSB voice
20%
SSB voice, heavy speech processing
50%
SSB AFSK
100%
SSB SSTV
100%
FM voice or data
100%
FSK
100%
AM voice, 50% modulation
50%
AM voice, 100% modulation
30%
147
G0 - RF Safety
Time Averaged Exposure Calculations
The FCC averages RF exposure times over a 10 and 30 minute periods.
These graphs show the same exposure amount whether long, low-level or
short, high-level. Lower duty cycle modes cause lower exposures.
G0 - RF Safety
148
AWG Wire Gauges vs. Current Capacity
AWG
Gauge
8
10
12
14
16
18
Continuous-Duty
Current Capacity (Amps)
Single
Bundled
Wire
Wire
73
46
55
33
41
23
32
17
22
13
16
10
149
G0 - RF Safety
Radio Signal Propagations
MUF
Maximum Usable Frequency
Reduces 6 meter, 10 meter and 15 meter propagation
11 year sunspot cycle does not energize E and F layers
enough for long distance skip during the low part of the cycle
LUF
Lowest Usable Frequency
Day time sun creates a D layer that absorbs 160 Meters, 80/75 meters
and sometimes 40 meters
Gray-line Propagation
Happens at Sunrise and Sunset when the D layer disappears.
Is north and south along the sunrise and sunset areas
Enhances propagation from 8,000 to 10,000 miles
Skip
E layer skip is around 1,200 miles F layer skip is around 2,500 miles
Long Path
Signal traveled around the earth 180 degrees opposite from the
intended other station
There is an echo in the receive signal
Solution is to use a directional antenna like a yagi
Pederson Ray
HF signals are bounced between the E and F layers several times
before returning to earth.
Benefit is stronger signal at the receiving station
Radio Signal Propagations (page 2)
TEP
Trans Equatorial Propagation
Happens within 2,500 miles of magnetic equator
In the afternoon or early evening
Is mainly north and south propagation
Tropospheric ducting
Enhances on 6 meters, 2 meters, and rarely on 440 propagation
Signals are travel 300 to 600 miles. (500 miles on test)
Happens because of temperature inversions
Meteor scatter
Signals bounce off ionized trails left by meteors through the E layer
Less than 1/10 of a second path
Good for computer packets data modes
Reflects 10 meters, 6 meters, and 2 meters signals back to earth
Propagates 100 to 350 miles
Transmit or receive for 15 seconds
Auroral
Particles from the Sun energize the E layer
Enhances 6 meter CW propagation
Can generally disrupt all communication
ON EXAM DAY BRING THE FOLLOWING ITEMS:
ID
1. A legal photo ID (driver’s license, passport).
2. When no photo ID is available, two forms of identification must be presented:
a. non-photo ID/driver's license (some states still have them)
b. birth certificate (must have the appropriate seal)
c. social security card
d. library card
e. utility bill, bank statement or other business correspondence that
specifically names the person; or a postmarked envelope addressed to the
person at his or her current mailing address as it appears on the Form 605.
3. Students may bring any of the above items and/or a school ID, minor's work
permit, report card, or a legal guardian may present a photo ID.
4. Bring your Social Security Number (SSN) or your FCC issued Federal
Registration Number (FRN) to the Exam Session.
a. VEC’s are required by the FCC to submit either your SSN or your FRN
number with your license application form. We prefer not to have your SSN.
b. You may register for a FRN with the FCC before exam day.
c. Go to the FCC ULS web site. Click the REGISTER button and follow the
instructions
http://wireless.fcc.gov/uls/index.htm?job=home
ON EXAM DAY BRING THE FOLLOWING ITEMS: (page 2)
5. If you have, or had an Amateur Radio License, bring the original and a photocopy
of your current Amateur Radio license and any Certificates of Successful
Completion of Examination (CSCE) you may hold from previous exam sessions.
The photocopy(s) will not be returned.
6. Two number two pencils with erasers and a pen.
7. A calculator with the memory erased and formulas cleared is allowed. You may
not bring any written notes or calculations into the exam session. Slide rules and
logarithmic tables are acceptable, as long as they're free of notes and formulas. Cell
phone must be silenced or turned off during the exam session and the phones'
calculator function may not be used.
In addition, iPhones, iPads, Androids, smartphones, Blackberry devices and all
similar electronic devices with a calculator capability, may NOT be used.
8. Bring a check, a money order or cash to cover the exam session fee(s).
Check the ARRL VEC’s current exam fee. The exam fee for 2014 is $15.