Transcript DH2T 34 Computer Architecture 1

DH2T 34
Computer Architecture 1
LO2 Lesson One
Memory
© Banff and Buchan College 2007
Random Access Memory.
Whenever a program is about to be run, the binary
code is first loaded into the RAM. The RAM chips are
split into a number of cells, or “addresses”, each with a
unique number. These cells are made of transistors
and capacitors.
RAM can be both read from and written to.
The common name for RAM is main memory.
The RAM capacitors can only hold their values for a
very small period of time before they discharge.
To retain the values, the capacitors must be constantly
refreshed with electrical current.
We therefore refer to this type of RAM as dynamic
memory.
DRAM is cheap to produce and has a very fast access
time – typically 60 – 70 nanoseconds.
RAM is volatile – it loses all the stored information if the
power is cut off.
You will sometimes see DRAM marketed as –
Synchronous RAM (SDRAM) – this is RAM synchronised to
the System Bus – it can run at 100MHz or more.
Rambus RAM (RDRAM) – this is a type of RAM specially
developed for the Pentium 4. It is also very fast but very
specialised.
Double Data Rate RAM (DDRAM) – this RAM effectively
doubles transfer rates by using both phases of the clock
cycle. Also known as DDR SDRAM.
Read Only Memory (ROM)
The role of the ROM chip is to start the computer,
perform the Power On Self Test (POST) and load the
operating system.
For this reason it is sometimes called the Basic Input
Output System (BIOS) chip.
Unlike RAM, the ROM chip is non-volatile; it retains all
it’s programming even when the power is switched off.
ROM chips have their programs burnt onto them at the
point of manufacture. They cannot be subsequently
reprogrammed.
They are comparatively expensive to produce and their
access times are very slow compared to RAM.
Another type of ROM, often found mounted
on peripherals, is Programmable Read Only
Memory (PROM).
Unlike a ROM, however, a
PROM is manufactured
blank. It has its program
burned onto it at a later
point using a PROM
burner.
The PROM can only be programmed once – it
cannot then be wiped clean and re-used.
Like a ROM, it’s access time is slow.
The setup costs to write the program for a PROM
are high, but once the algorithm has been
designed, the costs to produce burned PROMS
are extremely cheap. They are burned in huge
lots and used for many different types of firmware.
There are also types of PROM
available which can be
reprogrammed under certain
conditions.
These are Eraseable
Programmable Read Only
Memory (EPROM) and
Electrically Erasable Read
Only Memory (EEPROM).
EPROMS are wiped by using UV light, then
reprogrammed in a PROM burner.
EEPROMS are wiped using electrical current.
They can be reprogrammed using special
software or a PROM burner.
EPROMS and EEPROMS are often used in
firmware which will be subject to later upgrading
– for example on graphics cards. They are also
widely used for Quality Control purposes in
motherboard manufacturing.
Like ROM, these are also non-volatile and retain
their contents when switched off.
They are expensive to produce and their access
times are slow.
Another form of read/write memory is
Static Random Access Memory (SRAM).
Do not confuse this with SDRAM!
Modern computers ship with SRAM installed.
Very early computers had little or no SRAM.
Unlike DRAM, SRAM is composed of bi-polar
electric cells. These behave like very small
batteries and do not need to be constantly
refreshed with current.
SRAM, however, is still volatile – if the power is
cut all the contents are lost.
SRAM is much faster than DRAM (about 10 ns)
and more stable, but requires more power and
is a lot more expensive to produce.
For this reason it is only ever used as a memory
cache.
The Cache is memory which sits between the main
RAM and the CPU. It works on the Principle of Locality
of Reference – data frequently accessed is kept close
by, to save time.
Cache Memory can be located in the Processor
itself, on the Motherboard, or both.
Pentium 4s usually ship with 256kB or 512kB of
on-chip (Level 1) cache.
Elite Group motherboards usually ship with
128kB on-board (Level 2) cache.
Two Different Types of Cache
Write-through. Every write operation to the cache is
accompanied by a write of the same data to main
memory.
Write-back. In this scheme, the central processor
updates the cache during a write, but actual updating
of the memory is deferred until the line that has been
changed is discarded from the cache. At that point, the
changed data are written back to main memory.
The Cache is connected to the CPU by a special data
bus called the Front Side Bus. This is an extremely fast
data pipeline which often runs at half the speed of the
processor – a 1 GHz processor may have a FSB
running at 500 MHz or even more.
Front-side bus
from CPU to
L2 cache
Mem ory Devices
© Banff and Buchan College 2007
RIM
M4
RIM
M4
RIM
M3
800
200
200
pc
420
0
pc
270
0
pc
210
0
pc
160
0
pc
800
pc
133
pc
100
pc
66
72
pi n
SIM
M
Throughput (MB/s)
Data Throughput
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Memory Cycle Time (ns)
70
60
60
Cycle Time (ns)
50
40
30
20
15
10
10
7.5
6.4
5
3.9
0
Memory Devices
© Banff and Buchan College 2007
2.6
1.9
1.3
0.5
0.3
Summary
Dynamic RAM is another name for main memory. It is capacitorbased and volatile. It relatively cheap to produce.
Static RAM is used as the cache. It is made from bi-polar electric
cells and is comparatively expensive. It is also volatile.
Read-Only Memory (ROM) is used as the BIOS. It cannot be
reprogrammed and is expensive to produce. It is programmed at
the point of manufacture.
A PROM is manufactured blank and later programmed with a
PROM burner.
EPROMs and EEPROMs are types of ROM that can be
reprogrammed under certain conditions. They are expensive
to produce.