Transcript Document
IEEM 215: Manufacturing Processes Introduction and Agenda Outcome(s) Materials Properties - helps to determine how to make things with it - helps to determine the processing conditions - helps and constrains process optimization 1.0 1.1 Processes - forming, cutting, non-traditional, joining, surface treatments, electronics components, … 2.0 2.1 7.0 Process Planning 4.0 CNC programming 6.0, 6.1 Process Evaluation and Quality control 5.0, 8.0, 8.1 Process Economics and Optimization 5.0 Product design and Fabrication 9.0 3.0 3.1 Motivation (1) A bottle of Watson’s water (~HK$6) Four components (bottle, cap, label, water) - How are each of these manufactured? - What does the equipment cost? Motivation (2) Stapler (~HK$ 45) Approx. 15 components - How do we select the best material for each component? - How are each of these manufactured? Car: ~ 15,000 parts; Boeing 747 plane: ~6 million parts Intel core 2 duo processor: 65 nm feature size, 291 million transistors Materials Ferrous metals: carbon-, alloy-, stainless-, tool-and-die steels Non-ferrous metals: aluminum, magnesium, copper, nickel, titanium, superalloys, refractory metals, beryllium, zirconium, low-melting alloys, gold, silver, platinum, … Plastics: thermoplastics (acrylic, nylon, polyethylene, ABS,…) thermosets (epoxies, Polymides, Phenolics, …) elastomers (rubbers, silicones, polyurethanes, …) Ceramics, Glasses, Graphite, Diamond, Cubic Boron Nitride Composites: reinforced plastics, metal-, ceramic matrix composites Nanomaterials, shape-memory alloys, superconductors, … Properties of materials Mechanical properties of materials Strength, Toughness, Hardness, Ductility, Elasticity, Fatigue and Creep Physical properties Density, Specific heat, Melting and boiling point, Thermal expansion and conductivity, Electrical and magnetic properties Chemical properties Oxidation, Corrosion, Flammability, Toxicity, … Mechanical properties: Stress analysis stress = s = Force/Area Why do we need stress/strain (not just force, elongation) ? F3 Tension F2 F1 sy Compression tyx txy tyz tzy tzx Shear sx txz sz Tensile, compressive and shear stresses Stresses in an infinitesimal element of a beam Stress Analysis: Principal directions in 2D case sy s tyx txy sx sx sx t f txy txy tyx tyx sy sy s s x s y 2 x s x s y 2 cos2f t xy sin 2f 2t xy ds 0 tan2f df s x s y - principal directions are orthogonal to each other - 0 shear stress along PDs Stress Analysis: Principal shear stress in 2D case sy s tyx txy sx sx sx t txy txy sy sy s y s x 2 x tyx tyx t f sin 2f t xy cos 2f s x s y dt 0 tan2f 2t xy df Failure in Tension, Young’s modulus and Tensile strength Engineering stress = s = P/Ao Engineering strain = e = (L – Lo)/Lo = d/Lo Failure in Tension, Young’s modulus and Tensile strength.. Original Final Necking Fracture Failure in Tension, Young’s modulus and Tensile strength… In the linear elastic range: Hooke’s law: s = E e or, E = s/e E: Young’s modulus Elastic recovery after plastic deformation True Stress, True Strain, and Toughness Final Engg stress and strain are “gross” measures: Necking Fracture s = F/A => s is the average stress ≠ local stress e = d/Lo => e is average strain Toughness = energy used to fracture = area under true stress-strain curve true stress P/A engg stress P/Ao fracture fracture engg strain d/Lo true strain ln(L/Lo) Ductility Measures how much the material can be stretched before fracture Ductility = 100 x (Lf – Lo)/Lo High ductility: platinum, steel, copper Good ductility: aluminum Low ductility (brittle): chalk, glass, graphite - Walkman headphone wires: Al or Cu? Hardness resistance to plastic deformation by indentation Shear stress and Strain: the torsion test L L T T g D g T T C d q C’ Angle of twist: q = TL/GJ Shear stress: t = Tr/J Maximum shear stress = tmax = TR/J Shear strain = g = rq/L t=Gg T = torque, J = polar moment of inertia J = r2 dA Cylindrical shell: J = p( D4d4)/32 G: Modulus of rigidity Shear strength and Tensile strength [approximate relation between shear and tensile strengths] Ultimate Tensile Strength = Su Ultimate Shear Strength = Ssu Tensile Yield Strength = Syp Shear yield point = Ssyp Material Tensile-Relation Yield-Relation Wrought Steel & alloy steel Ssu ≈ 0.75 x Su Ssyp = Approx 0,58 x Syp Ductile Iron Ssu ≈ 0.90 x Su Ssyp = Approx 0,75 x Syp Cast Iron Ssu ≈ 1.3 x Su - Copper & alloys Ssu ≈ [0.6-0.9] x Su - Aluminum & alloys Ssu ≈ 0.65 xSu Ssyp = Approx 0,55 x Syp References: Machine design Theory and Practice .A.D.Deutschman, W.A Michels & C.E. Wilson.. MacMillan Publishing 1975. Fatigue Fracture/failure of a material subjected cyclic stresses S (amplitude in MPa) 500 1045 steel endurance limit 400 300 200 2014-T6 Al alloy 100 104 Modes of fatigue testing 105 106 107 108 109 1010 No of cycles, N S-N curve for compressive loading Failure under impact Application: Drop forging Charpy Izod Testing for Impact Strength scale pointer starting position pendulum sample placed here Strain Hardening - Metals microstructure: crystal-grains - Under plastic strain, grains slipping along boundaries - Locking up of grains => increase in strength - We can see this in the true-stress-strain curve also Applications: - Cold rolling, forging: part is stronger than casting Residual stresses Internal stresses remaining in material after it is processed Causes: - Forging, drawing, …: removal of external forces - Casting: varying rate of solidification, thermal contraction Problem: warping when machined, creep Releasing residual stresses: annealing Physical Properties Property Application (e.g.) Density, r = mass/volume Drop forging, hammering Specific heat Coolant in machining Thermal conductivity Cutting titanium Coeff of linear thermal expansion, a = DL/(L DT) Compensation in Casting, … Melting point Brazing, Casting, … Electrical conductivity EDM, ECM, Plating Magnetic properties Magnetic chucking Summary Materials have different physical, chemical, electrical properties Knowledge of materials’ properties is required to Select appropriate material for design requirement Select appropriate manufacturing process Optimize processing conditions for economic manufacturing … Reference: Chapter 2, Chapter 3, Mfg Engg & Tech, Kalpakjian & Schmid